If we talk about public life according to today's concepts, there was no such life then, neither in Radomsk nor in any other city in Congress Poland, except in the large cities like Warsaw, Lodz, etc. Back then we knew nothing about any spiritual-cultural movement other than the Hasidism, which was many times stronger than it is today. We still did not know what a political party was, and anyway, there weren't many of them. The Jewish street remained as it was, day after day, without any difference between yesterday, today and tomorrow. The Jew of that time, even though he was completely immersed in his family life and worries of his livelihood, which was as difficult as parting the Red Sea, liked to hear a little news of what was happening in the big world, and was especially interested in politics and the wars that broke out from time to time in the world. The news reached him through special channels such as in Beit HaMidrash [house of prayer] between Mincha and Maariv [afternoon and evening] prayers, the shtiebel [one-room synagogue], the mikveh [ritual bath], etc., and that was enough for him. There were no newspapers then. Throughout the vast Russia, with its three million Jews (Congress Poland was also one of its countries), there wasn't a single newspaper in Yiddish. Two newspapers appeared in Hebrew at the time: Ha-Tsfira ^[1] in Warsaw and HaMelitz ^[2] in St. Petersburg. We did not know yet how to buy a newspaper. Anyone who wanted to read a newspaper had to subscribe to it in advance, and if my memory serves me correctly, only about five copies of Ha-Tsfira (the day after its publication and one or two of HaMelitz) were received in the city. On Tuesday and sometimes on Wednesday. These few newspapers were read by all those who knew Hebrew in the city, because each newspaper had two or three partners. In those days, subscribing to a newspaper alone was a luxury that not everyone could afford. My father z''l [of blessed memory] was one of the few subscribers of Ha-Tsfira, and he always had one or two partners to the newspaper. After the partners finished reading it, I took the newspaper with me to Beit HaMidrash, where I was studying at the time, for the “educated” young men and it was passed from hand to hand until everyone finished it. But that was only on the days when I was the first to receive the newspaper. It also happened that I received the newspaper a few days after it arrived in the city, or that I did not receive it at all. There were Jews in the city who thought it would be better for them to occasionally drop a few groszn into the hand of the postman, Lenski, a gentile with a large mustache who did not particularly dislike a strong drink, and to receive the newspaper from him before he handed it over to its owner, than to send the advance subscription fee to Warsaw every quarter of the year. After my repeated protests and appeals to Lenski about this subject, and my threats that I would report the matter to the postmaster, had no effect on him and he continued his act of deception, I also got wise and started to drop a few groszn to his hand every now and then so that he wouldn't give the newspapers to others. This trick was effective, but only for a short time, because he immediately returned to his evil ways. He took money from me and others as well… until I finally found better advice. Every day I walked from our apartment at the end of Przedborska Street to the post office on Kaliska Street where I received the newspaper.

In several “progressive” homes in the city, they preferred to read a Polish newspaper, even though


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the fathers of the family knew Hebrew. Their excuse was that their family members, who didn't know Hebrew, would also be able to read it. There were even homes in Radomsk where they read the Kurier Warszawski [Warsaw Courier], the most widely circulated newspaper in those days. This newspaper reeked of open anti-Semitism even though its publisher, Leventhal, was an assimilated Jew, or maybe just because of that. These few families constituted the city's Jewish intelligentsia and its “bourgeoisie.” The heads of these families were not much different from the rest of the city's Jews. Some were quite well-known Torah scholars who spent their youth on the benches of Beit HaMidrash. There were even former Hasidim who traveled several times a year to see the rebbe but became heretic… Indeed, not everyone went to the same extreme. There were those who, despite all their “progress,” remained within the camp, such as Reb Berish Ferszter, Reb Leizer Richterman, Reb Leizer Pelbner and his son Yisraelka of the wealthiest in the city. They were partners in a kind of a “bank” and contractors for the Warsaw-Vienna railway. They carried out all the work and repairs along the entire length of the railway, in accordance with the concession they had from the railway authorities. They were observant Jews who conducted their daily lives according to the spirit of the Torah and tradition. On the Sabbath they came to pray at the rabbi's Beit Midrash. Later, Reb Berish Ferszter installed his own synagogue in his big house on Kaliska Street at the corner of Żabia Street (the one that later passed to the hands of Dovid Bugajski). This synagogue housed the first Zionist Association in the city before the First World War, and “Beit-Yaakov” after that. These two, Ferszter and Richterman, were known in the city for their great generosity. The family of Reb Leizer Pelbner, and even more his wife Keila, excelled in their generosity. They raised and educated their sons to Torah and secular education. Since there were no Jewish schools in Poland at the time, Reb Berish Ferszter and Yisroelka Richterman sent their sons to a high school in Frankfurt am Main in Germany. I don't remember if it was a community school or a private one, and if they also taught Jewish studies there.

Besides these two, there were several other Jews in the city who were known as “educated.” They read Jewish apocrypha books, sent their sons to Fabian School (a liberal gentile who was considered a sympathizer of the Jews) with two high school classes (there was a school in the city, a government elementary school, whose principal was Wolski, but the Jews did not send their sons to this school). For Judaic studies they fulfilled their duty at the kheder [religious primary school] of Yoel Sztatler, father of Berish Sztatler, who was called

Radomsk Vicinity (the Warta River)

the Olkuszy teacher after the city of his origin, Olkusz. He was an innocent and honest old Jew, but because of his knowledge of the Hebrew language, which he taught to his students, he was considered a heretic by many. Only a very few of the city's Jews dared to risk their good name and hand over their sons to him. Of them, I remember Reb Hirshl Banker, a learned man, a Hasid who became a “heretic.” He was among the wealthiest in the city, owner of a house with a large garden and a hotel on the corner of the Powiatowa and Kaliska Streets (across from Gabriel Goldberg's house) and one of the community's public activists. Every Sabbath he came to the synagogue and sat next to the rabbi at the eastern wall. And I still remember Reb Lizer Reichman and Avraham Epsztajn, both forest merchants (they were in-laws), Pulman, Dunski, Hasenberg and others. These Jews, although they had already tasted the taste of Europe and were in constant contact with Polish estate owners around the city, still remained within the camp and were somewhat active in the community's public life. But there were also those, albeit very few, who went so far as to avoid any contact with the rest of the city's Jews, such as the elderly Chaim Baum and his son Daniel, and Yeshaya Rozewicz, who owned two factories. He was a simple Jew who amassed a fortune, and as his wealth grew, his Jewishness gradually shrank until nothing remained of it except his appearance on Yom Kippur at the synagogue for a few hours, and in this he fulfilled his duty. But this Jew was severely punished by the Heavens. One of his sons, Leon, “fell into bad ways.” He was caught up in the Zionist idea and became the assistant of Moshe Lewkowicz, the Zionists' leader, for several years, to the displeasure of his father and the members of his family. And of the same kind was also the elderly Mitelman, father of Dr. Mitelman, Henrik and Kuba. He was a sickly insurance agent who rarely left his house. And there were two more Levy brothers, Zanwel and Hershel, and the families Szper or Szperber, and Rafel of the Ferszter and Richterman clerks. They and a number of other Jews like them constituted the city's intelligentsia, but they were only a small handful. Most of the Jews in the city were Hasidim: the Radomsk Hasidim, Ger, Sochaczew, Alexander and many more. Among them were many scholars, educated and pious; among them were those who stood out from the entire community such as the three sons-in-law of Tiferet Shlomo z”l [Shlomo HaKohen Rabinowicz]: Reb Yechiel Landau, Reb Yisroel Kron, and Reb Lipman Litmanowicz and his son Mendel, Reb Shmuel the judge (father of Yisroelka who was also a judge in the city in a later period), Michael Shochet. There were several other Jews who were no longer alive during the period about which I am talking, but I remember them from previous years, such as my last two teachers – Reb Avraham Yitzchak and Reb Hirsh Yosef (both were judges), Reb Pinchas Wolf the teacher, Reb Noah Shochet, Reb Raphael Rapoport, Reb Avraham'le Zilber (the hunchback) and many more. There were several dozen Jews who flocked after the popular Hasidus of Radoshitz, Rozprza and more, but their presence in the city was not noticeable.

At the head of public life stood the community representatives – the dozorim [members of the synagogue council]. They were elected once every three years. The elections were held at the synagogue or in Beit HaMidrash, in the presence of the district clerk or the district minister, and for the most part without their influence on the course of the elections and their results. The influence on the elections was sometimes held by a handful of ordinary people, loud Jews who campaigned for one candidate or another and tipped the scales in his favor. The candidates were almost always the same people, as is today so then, whoever went up to the podium did not get off it… And if it ever happened that one of them failed and was not elected, it was only for a short time, because if he only managed to acquire a “suitable side” in the next election, he was elected again. It was a kind of “possession,” and all the townspeople knew that only Avraham Lubelski, a tailor who rose to greatness (he later moved to Lodz), Hirsh Banker, Yosef Hirsh Szatz, Leizer Tebtzer, Fishel Dynsky, Gabrial Goldberg and several other people could be elected as dozorim. The main role of the community l representatives was to impose the community tax on the Jewish population and to assess it from time to time. They also served as “liaisons” between


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the Jewish population and the authorities, represented it at time of need, and they set all the important community matters.

Besides the dozorim were gabbaim [assistants to the rabbis], who headed benevolent institutions or the educational and cultural institutions, so to speak, that existed in the city at that time. As I remember, the main activity of these “institutions” was expressed only in the fact that each had a house of prayer (a minyan), apart from the Chevra Kadisha [Burial Society] about which it is impossible to complain because it was not active… At the head of the Chevra Kadisha were Nechemia Orbach, Mordechai Gliksman (“Skalka”) and one of my uncles, Bril Kamelgarn. My second uncle, Till, was the gabbai of Chevra Kadisha in an earlier period, but I don't remember him anymore. There was also Bikur Cholim [visiting the sick], but apart from its minyan, I don't remember any actual activity of this association. There was also a Talmud Torah [free primary school for poor boys] in the city, and its teacher was Herschel Kortsava, father of the well-known Mordechai Zelig, but I prefer not to talk about this institution. It is known which scholars of Torah and Judaism these institutions produced in the cities of Poland in those days and our city, Radomsk, did not “lag behind” in this sense from other cities.

In the years preceding the period I am telling about, there was in Radomsk, like in other cities, an institution known by the name Hekdesh. It was a “hospitality house” for poor beggars who wandered from city to city. In the Hekdesh they found a place to sleep after their “working day.” I only remember that the building that housed the Hekdesh on Przedborska Street at the corner of Dluga Street was already in ruins, without doors, windows and a roof. In my days, the Hekdesh kheder of Reb Avraham the teacher took the place of the Hekdesh. Reb Avraham was a teacher of young children, and almost half of the city's schoolchildren received their first education in his kheder. He was a Jew with severe asthma who did not stop coughing for a moment. He lived in the rabbi's courtyard, which always housed several khederim from teachers for young children to teachers of Gemara [Torah commentaries], Tosafot [Talmud commentaries] and interpreters. I myself spent most of my childhood in this yard, starting in Reb Avraham's kheder and finishing in the cheder of the teacher Reb Hirsh Yosef. Reb Abraham's apartment had two rooms, he lived in one of them with his family and they cooked, ate and slept there. His wife sat there and did her work, the work “decorating” head covers for the city's women and also received her clients there. In addition, a large pot which was always full of boiling water stood there, and they sold tea to all the neighborhood residents. The second [room] was the cheder with two tables, one for him and the second for his assistant, and benches that were always filled to the brim with boys. This Jew knew how to utilize this room, which remained unused and without any purpose after the students left it at the end of their studies, in the most effective way. Meaning, he would enjoy it in this world and would also have good in the next world. He turned it into a kind of Hachnasat Orchim [hospitality] for the poor from outside the city. For this purpose, he had about a dozen mattresses, which were placed somewhere outside the room during the day and served as a place for games for young students. In the evening, he brought them inside, arranged them on the floor, and about a dozen poor people slept on them for two kopecks a night, and these guests changed almost every night. In the morning they removed the mattresses and the boys came to their place… (I mention this episode for those who have not yet experienced the taste of the kheder, to give them an idea of the nature of the “kindergarten” where their ancestors spent their first years of study).

But there was also a Hachnasat Orchim society in the city. It was the Hachnasat Orchim society of the students of the Beit HaMidrash. We had three societies in Beit HaMidrash: Kinyan Sefarim for the purchase of books, Tikun Sefarim for repairing books that had been torn from excessive use, and Hachnasat Orchim, which was intended for exceptional individuals from among the poor who visited the city. These were decent Jews, scholars and respectable people who, for the most part, left adult daughters in their homes without a dowry, without any possibility of marrying them off. For this purpose, they left their cities and wandered throughout the country until they had collected the amount needed and returned to their homes. There were also those among them for whom “begging” was already their constant occupation, and until now they were forced to stay overnight with Reb Avraham the teacher with a mixed group of people. When such a poor man came to Beit HaMidrash, he immediately turned to the society's gabbai [assistant to the rabbi] who knew how to evaluate each and every one of the poor and give a known amount according to his value. There were also poor people who, in addition to the gift of money they received from the treasury, also received a list of important homeowners in the city. They no longer collected alms from house to house, but only according to the list, and there they received larger alms. At night, these “important” poor people sometimes found a place on the benches of the Beit HaMidrash, and under their heads was a sack containing a tallit [prayer shawl] and tefillin [phylacteries], a few shirts, etc., which they carried with them on their wanderings.

The sources of income for these societies, apart from monthly membership fees imposed on each young man, were mainly donations of grooms before their wedding ceremony. It was a Jewish custom to send to each groom on the eve of his wedding several students from the Beit HaMidrash who sat with him until the wedding ceremony and rejoiced with him. In addition, each of the above societies sent a pair of students to the groom with a letter of request, or in a “song,” according to the groom's worth, and the grooms made their contributions to the society, each according to his ability. (This method was used as a source of income not only by the students of the Beit HaMidrash, but also for all the societies in the city).

Apart from the aforementioned institutions I don't remember any other institutions in the city. There were no other educational institutions apart from Talmud Torah [religious primary schools]. There were only private khederim, about fifteen or twenty, where all the city's children were educated. The khederim in which I studied were: the aforementioned Reb Avraham the teacher, Reb Moshe Kroza, Reb Yehezkel Zanwel (son-in-law of Eliezer'l Shochet) who later moved to Lodz, Reb Yoel the deaf one (the children of his fourth generation, brother and sister are in Israel, and they are Mr. Starobinski, son of Tuvia-Leizer Starobinski, and his sister, daughter-in-law of the city's last rabbi who is in Haifa). Reb Avraham Yitzchak the judge, and the last Reb Hirsh Yosef who was also a judge. In addition to the aforementioned teachers: Reb Yehoshua, Reb Lipman, Reb Yekiel the lame, Reb Henoch of Przedborz (made Aliyah [immigration] to Israel in 1913), Reb Moshe Lipa's, Reb Pinchas Wolf, Reb Mordechai Yosef, Reb Yoske Landau, my brother-in-law, the son-in-law of my father-in-law Reb Bril Witenbergl z”l and Reb Aharon Hirsh of Dzialoszyn. Children of the wealthy studied in these chadarim and continued their studies at the Beit HaMidrash. The poorest of them left for places of study in other cities. There, they studied in Batei Midrash [houses of prayer], ate yamim ^[3] or were hungry… Yeshivot [religious secondary schools], such as those in Volozhin, Kovno-Solodovka, Mir, Tlez and others, were not in Congress Poland, apart from the two yeshivot in Lomza and Makow. But these two were at the other end of the country and I don't remember a single boy from Radomsk who wandered as far as these cities. These yeshivot were known to us only from the visits of their emissaries who came several times a year to collect the monthly commitment fees from the city's residents and also preached several sermons at the synagogue or at the Beit HaMidrash.

Most of the city's boys who finished the last cheder and were unable to reach the highest level of the khedarim due to their parents' poverty, became apprentices to the city's craftsmen. These crafts were extremely limited; there were only tailors, shoemakers, bakers, milliners, seamstresses, watchmakers, carpenters, etc. There was no light industry in the city. In the few factories, such as the furniture factories for the production of chairs of the Thonet brothers or the Cohen brothers from Vienna, or in the factories of Rozewicz, the Jewish worker had no foothold. Even if these factories agreed to accept Jewish workers, there was not a single Jew who agreed to engage in this work. It was different for young women. Many young women, even the daughters of important homeowners, engaged in


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the work they found in the aforementioned chair factories. However, they did not work inside the factories but in their homes. The work was weaving chairs from reeds that the city's young women were trained in. There were families blessed with several daughters, who earned their entire livelihood from this work. Apart from that, there was no other work for them. Many young women worked as 'housekeepers, but they were mostly from the simple and poor people. There were no milliners or seamstresses because they were not needed. Dresses for women were then sewn by tailors (men). The level of education of the young people was very low in those days, both in terms of knowledge of our special culture and in terms of general culture. There was no decent library in the city. There was only the library of Moshe the bookbinder, the son of Reb Yeshaya Peretz the bookbinder. This library provided spiritual nourishment for all of the city's youth, the students of the Beit HaMidrash, the apprentices and even the housekeepers (the maids, as they were called then).

Moshe the bookbinder lived with his father, Yeshaya Peretz (who spoke through his nose in a terrible way), and both worked in bookbinding. Moshe traveled to Warsaw several times a year and brought various books that the townspeople ordered from him, mainly books written by rabbis and scholars. Very rarely he brought several books of Yiddish tales like the books of “Shomer” [Nahum Meir Szajkiewicz], Isaac Mayer Dick, Ozer Blusztajn and others. He lent these books to his readers for a monthly fee, and they passed from hand to hand. A short time later the books became torn and worn-out rags to the point that they could not be picked up. He did not agree to bring books in Hebrew. He did not want to risk himself, not materially because of the small number of readers of Hebrew books, but more out of fear of the wrath of the jealous parents who would surely tear him apart like a fish if they found out that he was providing their sons with books that were unsuitable for reading. Acceptable books weren't such a terrible thing. No man in town cared if his daughter or even his wife were reading the book Mayśe-bikhl ^[4]. It was a normal and acceptable pastime. But it was forbidden to mention a Hebrew book.

There was another such “library” in the city, owned by two brothers whose names I have forgotten. One of them was lame and the other hunchbacked, and they lived with their widowed mother on Kaliska Street. This library contained only Hebrew books, but in very small quantities due to the poverty of its owners. It was only used by the students of the Beit HaMidrash. But we were not satisfied with what we had, and since we longed for a Hebrew book, we had to resort to various means to somehow reach the private libraries of the few educated people in the city. When such a book came into the hands of one of us, it was passed from hand to hand. Purchasing a Hebrew book openly was impossible. As mentioned, Moshe the bookbinder did not want to risk it. There was only one way for the students of the Beit Midrash to purchase a Hebrew book: through the traveling booksellers who often came to the city, especially on the anniversary of the passing of Tiferet Shlomo [Splendid Shlomo] and Chesed Le'Avraham z”l. The main trade of these Jews was in books written by rabbis and teachers such as: khumases [Five books of Moses], machzorim [prayer book used on holidays], tefillin [phylacteries], mezuzot [handwritten scroll placed in a box on doorposts containing verses from the Torah], sashes, tzitziyot [fringes tied to corners of prayer shawl], etc. They arranged their goods on long tables in the Beit HaMidrash or in its courtyard, and around them stood the usual shoppers and they chose what they wanted. However, under the tables, in the sacks where they kept most of their merchandise, there was also some prohibited merchandise that was intended for special buyers who always stood by the tables at times when there were no regular buyers there. A book bought by one student was read by all the students at the Beit HaMidrash. I once bought the book Daniel Deronda by George Eliot with the translation of Dovid Friszman. After reading it, I lent it to one of my friends and the book came back two years later… In this way, I had the opportunity to read about two dozen books in exchange for a book that was passed from person to person until it eventually came back to me. The same thing was with the newspapers: thanks to Ha-Tsfira [The Siren] that we received in our home, I had the opportunity to read HaMelitz [The Advocate] and several other Polish and Russian newspapers. All my friends had done the same. And it did not matter to us which newspaper, from which direction, because the main thing for us was the reading, the “what” wasn't important to us. We were so thirsty about reading a newspaper, and by that, I mean only the educated group of Beit Midrash students. One of us obtained the Polish newspaper Rola, with its distinctly anti-Semitic content, from a gentile neighbor. We even got hold of the dry newspaper, Piotrovskaya Gubernskiye Vedomosti [Piotrokow Provincial Gazette] (a collection of official publications). Our neighbor, Wolf Birncwajg, had a subscription to the newspaper because he was the supplier of the battalion that was stationed in our city, but did not read it for the simple reason that he did not know any Russian. This newspaper was also a commodity for us to trade… The newspapers passed from hand to hand until they were torn from much use.

But the city's youth as a whole, the apprentices and the few clerks, did not feel any need for either a newspaper or a book. They didn't have free time for that because they worked until late in the evening. The craftsmen as well as the shopkeepers spent the Sabbath partly sleeping and partly dancing with young women, on walks on the “New Road” (later Pobiatowa Street), or to “Rigel” (on the road to Kamiensk). A small portion found their “Sabbath pleasure” in Mayśe-bikhl [story book].

This was the face of Jewish youth in general in those days. This was the case in Radomsk, and this was the situation in most Polish cities, and only a few cities were exempt from this rule. When we read every day in the newspapers about the vibrant Jewish life in the cities of the well-known “Pale of Settlement,” especially in the cities of Lithuania and Poland, about the Hovevei Zion [Lovers of Zion] movement that encompassed all their communities, their Torah institutions, yeshivot and cultural institutions, our hearts were filled with envy and we felt great sadness and despair.

We were a small group of young people whose desire for a new content for our gray lives filled all our thoughts, and we pondered and never stopped discussing and questioning it. But we were unable to help ourselves, and there was not a man among us with the energy and initiative to guide us and show us the way. And so we degenerated and walked without any hope for better days. There was one attempt to improve the situation, but it failed before it saw the light of day. This was when a group of people arose in Warsaw and wanted to imitate the “Society for the Promotion of Culture among the Jews,” which was then located in Petersburg and whose stronghold was spread over all the cities of the “Pale of Settlement.” The purpose of the society was to establish schools for Jewish children, libraries, and support poor young people who aspired to acquire an education, etc. But the society's operations did not reach the cities of Poland. I do not know for what reason, whether because the society's regulation did not allow it, or for some other reason.

And so a few people in Warsaw came up with the idea of founding a parallel organization that would operate only in Polish cities. At that time, Hirsch David Nomberg left Radomsk and moved to Warsaw. This was after he lost all the dowry that he received from his father-in-law, Mordechai Szapira, in the grocery store he had for a short time in Banker's house. Reb Mordechai Szapira accused him of failure and because of this, or because of other things that were not to his father-in-law's liking, a quarrel broke out between them. Nomberg was expelled from his father-in-law's house and was forced to leave the city and move to Warsaw. When he learned about the newly founded organization and its goals, he tried to help us and indeed succeeded in influencing the organization's directors (by the way, this organization did not last long; it died before it could even begin any activity) to come to our aid. There was a woman in town, her name was Rapel, the wife of the Ferszter and Rechtman clerk firm's clerk. She was engaged and had connections with the organization, or its founders, and they assigned her the task of organizing the matter. With her help, our group of five or six young men was founded (not just the students at the Beit HaMidrash, I was the only one of them) with the goal of studying to the point where we would be qualified after a few years to go to Geneva and enter the


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university there, For this purpose, we were to send one or two students to prepare us. But unfortunately for us, the group was located in Piotrokow, where the Kazakh group was founded, and also in Lodz, which registered all those who enrolled for studies, and this candidate was a true believer! When the great news was heard, he also informed Radom about it. That summer the whole idea was over before we even received the first lesson…

And here, one day appeared in Ha-Tsfira a notice about a Jew named Dr. Theodor Herzl in Vienna, of the editors of the newspaper Neue Freie Presse [New Free Press]. He conceived and came up with the idea of purchasing Eretz Yisrael from the Turkish governor Abdul Hamid, and to establish a “safe haven” for the Jews there with the consent and assistance of all the governments of the world. For this purpose, he was going to found a bank, with the help of which he hoped to collect the necessary amount to realize this idea. He appealed to all Jews around the world to help with this great undertaking and to immediately begin actions to establish Zionist associations in every city and town and to recruit members for these associations.

I cannot say that this “sensational” news aroused among the audience in Radomsk the necessary resonance that such news could, and should, arouse. The general public, apart from a few distinguished individuals, remained indifferent to the whole matter. This news did not reach most of the city's Jews, those who were far from reading newspapers. The Jews would not agree and if they did, the gentiles would not agree. Religious Judaism, as we know, was not the only one that remained indifferent, but immediately declared war on all those who advocated the idea. The only ones who were very impressed by the news and enthusiastic about the idea were, apart from those mentioned above, a few people in the city; several students at the Beit HaMidrash had already been attracted to the idea of Hovevei Zion. This was caused to a certain extent by the fact that the news was published in Ha-Tsfira and the editor of the newspaper at that time, Reb Nahum Sokolow, z”l treated it seriously and with dignity, in contrast to his previous position until then. There was a very big difference in the spirit of the two Hebrew newspapers of the time: Ha-Tsfira and HaMelitz.

While HaMelitz advocated nationalism and Hovevei Zion, which occupied the largest part of the newspaper, most of the material in Ha-Tsfira was devoted to local questions and educating the people. The part of the love of Hovevei Zion movement and life in Eretz Yisrael occupied little space in the newspaper. On the contrary, Sokolov sometimes treated these matters with a bit of disdain. And then Ha-Tsfira began to respond to the idea of Dr. Herzl z”l, that is, to the Zionist idea, in a completely different tone.

It was time to act and begin the practical work, but it soon became clear to us that it was not so easy. The young men who were most enthusiastic about the idea backed down one by one when things came to fruition and when they encountered opposition from their parents. The parents, most of whom were Hasidic or just ordinary Jews, who viewed the whole matter in a completely negative light, opposed it most vigorously. Even the parents who were less opposed to the idea itself did not agree to their sons engaging in this. They saw it as a waste of time and the cancellation of studies it could lead to.

There were only three of us who were allowed to act freely, without any opposition from our parents. My father was indeed a member of the Radomsker Hasidim and on Shabbat he prayed in the rabbi's minyon [10 men required for prayer]. In matters of commerce or family, he did not do anything without asking the rabbi and without his consent. He was one of those who advocated the method: “Take hold of this, and also from this you shall not withdraw your hand.” And while he was a religious and God-fearing Jew in the full sense of the word, he also loved to read secular books in Hebrew and Polish and also wrote beautifully in Hebrew. He loved to purchase for himself, at every opportunity, a Hebrew book or a collection of Haskalah [Enlightenment] literature. He was also one of the few Hovevei Zion in the city. At first, I was a little hesitant to come out publicly and join the Zionists and help them in any way I could, because I did not know how far my father's “enthusiasm” reached. But to my surprise, my fears were unfounded, and my father did not bother me at all.

The second one who had a free hand in the Zionist activity was my relative, Azriel Przyrowski son of Itzy Przyrowski, a textile merchant. The third was my brother-in-law, Reb Avramachi Minski z”l. He provided great service to the first Zionist activists in the founding of the association. My father-in-law, Reb Bril Witenberg z”l, Avramachi's stepfather, was the first mohel [circumciser] in his city and its surroundings. He listed all those circumcised by him (at the time their number had already reached several thousand) and Avramachi loved to take care of these lists. He put them in order and added, as much as possible, various details about the circumcised, like the parents' names, their occupation, date of birth, etc. Over time, he became a kind of “living encyclopedia” for all the city's natives, so much so that the municipality began to exploit him and use his book whenever necessary. Over time a special “Jewish table” was established in the city for all Jewish matters, and Avramachi became its director… When Moshe Lewkowicz set out to found the first Zionist association in the city, he relied heavily on Avramachi's card index…

Apart from the three of us, I don't remember any of students of the Beit HaMidrash who dared to reveal the secret that they were Zionists, even though they were loyal Zionists. Because, if Avraham Moshe Kalka (brother of Yehoshua and Henoch), dared to admit that he was a Zionist, his father, Reb Tuvia Kalka, the zealous Amshinover Hasid, would have kicked him out of his house. And the same is true for Moshe Luria, the son of Yoske Luria, and Yekil Soyfer, son of Reb Leib Fishel Soyfer. Although neither of them was among the educated, they were devoted Zionists and would willingly cooperate with the Zionists if they were not afraid of their fathers. To be honest, I must note here that it was not only among the circles of zealous Hasidic Jews that Zionism in Radomsk encountered some resistance in the early days, but even among the Jewish intelligentsia in the city. Almost all of the city's intellectuals we listed above stood at a distance and did not openly join the new association.

Among the first founders of the association were Jews whom no one believed were capable of grasping this idea. Here is Moshe Lewkowicz z”l, the first chairman of Radomsk Zionists, a Jew who until then was unknown in the city. He returned to Radomsk from Lodz, where he had lived for several years, only shortly before that. A simple Jew, not very close to our sources. He did not know Hebrew at all (we agreed that I would teach him Hebrew and he would teach me to play the violin, but for some reason it did not work out). And it was precisely this man who devoted himself entirely to Zionist work, even to the point of neglecting his difficult livelihood. He was a wonderful conversationalist. It was possible to sit with him for hours and listen with great interest to his pleasant conversations. His influence on the few Zionists in the city, in the early days of Zionism in Radomsk, was immense. He was a founder of the Zionist Association and remained its chairman throughout its existence.

And here is the aforementioned Lion Rozewicz, the son of an assimilated family who had no ties with the city's Jews. His father and his older brother avoided any contact with them. Adam, who did not receive a Jewish education, was one of the first to join the association and was among its most active.

On the other hand, the first to join the Zionist Union were people who, in their education and in their Jewish worldview, were far from Lion Rozewicz and others like him, as far away as the east is from the west, such as Avraham Dovid Bril, Avraham Moshe


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Waksman, Meir Szitenberg, Reuven Liberman and others. They did not join as members but were known in the city as enthusiastic Zionists. A Jew like Kopel Glidman (son of Avraham Leib Glidman, who was the shamash [rabbi's assistant] of Tiferet Shlomo z”l), a religious Jew, a passionate follower of the Rebbe, and at the same time a poor and oppressed Jew who served the community and was dependent on its opinion. As the shamash of the Beit HaMidrash he devoted himself with all his heart and soul to the Zionist idea. He did not hesitate to conduct vigorous propaganda in its favor, without fear or hesitation, among all those who attended the Beit HaMidrash.

And when I mention here several names of the first Zionists in Radomsk, I find it my duty to also mention a “Zionist” of a different type, and he is – Mikhal the “water drawer.” He was a very simple man who certainly did not know the shape of a letter, and I'm sure he did not even know what Zion was, where it was and what they were going to do with this Zion… This Jew was always one of the first to bring the few pennies he had earned from his hard work, whether as membership dues or as a payment on account for a Colonial Bank's share, etc. In this manner the Zionist Association of Radomsk was founded, with individuals from all walks of life registered as members. The vast majority of the city's residents remained on the sidelines, some of whom viewed the Zionist idea positively but did not dare to openly join the association.

What was the scope of the Zionist association activities in Radomsk after its founding? As I recall, its activities were very limited. All the work was expressed in the sale of the shekels and the reading of the “Return Letters” ^[5] of Dr. Bernsztajn-Khanan, z”l before the members by Moshe Lewkowicz. In contrast to other cities, there was no strong opposition to Zionism, neither on the part of the Hasidim nor on the part of the laborers, who were few in the city, nor even on the part of the city's rabbi. All opposition to Zionism in Radomsk was passive and did not provoke any reaction. Even the “courtyard” in Radomsk did not take any part in the war on Zionism.

The Radomsker Hasidus always stood on the side and implemented this line all the years until the Second World War. I had a brother in Lodz in whose home the high politics of Radomsker Hasidus was cooked. I know that every time when a war broke out in Lodz between the Hasidim and the national camp or between Gerer Hasidim and the Alexander Hasidim. This happened often especially during election days, and there were always attempts by the warring parties to pull the Radomsker Hasidim into the war, but it didn't always help.

To our great regret, Zionism did not last long, neither in Radomsk nor throughout Great Russia. The final end came several years later. The Tsarist regime, in waging a heavy war on the Jewish and socialist workers' movements, also dealt a severe blow to Zionism. Whether out of not knowing the differences between these two movements or out of malice… After a short period of Zionist activity, the movement was banned throughout Russia and was outlawed, forcing it to go underground. Admittedly, the best Zionists did not so easily lay down their weapons and surrender to the harsh decree, and by all sorts of means they knew how to continue the work despite the official ban. However, it goes without saying that the work could not have been as fruitful as in previous years. By the outbreak of the First World War, the Zionist movement was no longer as visible on Jewish streets as in its early years.

And behold, the First World War broke out and the Nazis' forefathers, either for political reasons in order to win the opinion of the Jewish people to their side or due to other factors, decided to loosen the leash and allow Zionist work again. It goes without saying that the reaction from the Jewish street was not long in coming. A great awakening arose, and Zionist associations began to spring up frequently in all Polish cities and, as usual, the first associations were founded in the large cities. There were indeed exceptional cities that were more responsive to the mitzvah [commandment, often translated as good deed], among them very small cities. However, in most places, the Zionist revival began somewhat slowly, whether due to a lack of “activists” or other reasons, and one of these cities was Radomsk.

At that time, I returned to Radomsk as a refugee. In the first year of the war, echoes of the national awakening, which encompassed the Jewish population in most Polish cities, also reached our city. Its veteran Zionists had already begun to speak of the need to renew the Zionist work. When I returned to Radomsk I became a regular worshipper at Kopel's Beit Midrash. I took my place at a table that was at the eastern wall on the right, and all who sat there were my old acquaintances, and they were all Zionists: Berish Sztetler, Mendel Fajnzilber, Yitzhak Pacanowski, Hillel Zombek (who was then the gabbai of the Beit HaMidrash), Berish Szticki and also the two Gold brothers, Nachman and Dovid. Every Sabbath during the prayer, we only discussed this problem: how to rebuild the ruins of the Zionist association in the city and renew our days as before. But we did not get any action at all. What was missing was the motivating factor that would breathe life into the dry bones …and here he came.

It was on a wintery Friday morning in the second week of the war. When I entered the shop of my brother-in-law, Yekil Witenberg z”l [of blessed memory], I saw there a man unknown to me. When I entered the shop, Witenberg turned to the man as he was pointing at me: “Here comes a Zionist Jew who you can beat as hard as you want. To this day, there is no Zionist association in Radomsk, and he alone is to blame for this.” It was Dr. Meir Klomel z”l, chairman of the Central Committee of Polish Zionists, which was founded in Warsaw at that time. Dr. Klomel was one of those that it was said about them: “I have seen members of the caste of the spiritually prominent, and they are few” [Sukkah 45b]. He was one of the greatest leaders of Polish Zionism, a scholar from a Lithuanian yeshiva, doctor of philosophy, and most important, a Zionist at heart and soul. In his private life, he was a paper merchant and had several clients in Radomsk such as Witenberg, Pajnski, Gelbard and others. Their ties were severed because of the war and he came to renew them.

Dr. Klomel started hitting me one by one… How is it that a community such as Radomsk, a large and important Jewish city, is not ashamed to remain indifferent and frozen in its tracks while the entire nation, in all its diaspora, has already risen to life? And for a long hour he did not stop giving me moral advice, and his words were really emotional and passionate. In the end, we agreed: since he had to be in Radomsk on the Shabbat (he was a religious Jew and did not travel on Shabbat), he would give us a “Zionist” speech and rouse the people from their slumber.

I immediately recruited several young men who happened to enter the shop, Dovid Kalai, Yekel Aronowicz (later Doctor Aronowicz) and a few others, and we started with the preparations. It was not long before word of the important guest and his lecture spread quickly throughout the city. The next day, on Sabbath evening, several dozen townspeople, mostly young, gathered at the “Kultura” hall, I think that was its name. It was located on Strzalkowska Street at the Szpaltin home and was given to us with the help of Yosel Fajerman, who was one of the youth activists and I had some influence on him.

Dr. Klomel gave us a very beautiful and interesting lecture, which, as I recall, left a strong impression on those gathered. The lecture ended at about six o'clock, and since the train to Warsaw did not leave until eleven and we did not want to leave Dr. Klomel alone for the entire evening, it was decided among us to host him at one of the homes and spend the evening with him. We chose the home of Moshe Lewkowicz who for some reason was not present at the lecture. Mendel Fajnzilber, Dovid Kalai and I were chosen as Dr. Klomel's companions. The whole affair started anew at Moshe Lewkowicz's home. Dr. Klomel taught us another chapter on Zionism until that evening it was decided to establish a new Zionist association in the city. And here the question of location arose, because getting an apartment in Radomsk back then was not one of the easiest things. But this question was also quickly resolved. Sitting with us at the time was Moshe Bugajski, the son of Dovid Bugajski, who was once Lewkowicz's student and came that evening to his former teacher. When he heard how we were debating the question of an apartment for the association, he gave us good advice. In his father's house


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is the synagogue that years ago belonged to the Zionists. The minyan [10 men required for prayer] of Bikur Cholim [visiting he sick] (or any other association) is now located there, and since this association is not paying rent for several months, his father is about to evict it, but he hesitates because: what will people say? He advised us to approach his father with a proposal, and he is sure that in such a case, that is, to leave the synagogue in place but to replace the sign, his father would gladly agree.

We found his advice correct, and the next day a three-person delegation was sent to David Bugajski: Mendel Fajnzilber, Yekel Witenberg and Moshe Reichtman, and the matter ended with great success. Since then “Beit Yakov” was established.

These are my memories of our city Radomsk from the last five years of the last century [19^th], apart from the last lines about the founding of the “Beit Yakov” association, of which I was privileged to be among its founders and directors. It is possible that some details in these memoirs are not entirely accurate, it is possible that some important figures from the city who should be mentioned here were not remembered out of forgetfulness, and vice versa, it is possible that some things that were emphasized by overemphasis may seem to others to be less important, or not important at all. I didn't mean to write “history.” I just wanted to contribute, among others, my meager part in presenting a “commemoration” in memory of our pure martyrs who were destroyed and devoured by the Nazi predatory beasts, may their names be blotted out.

Translator's footnotes

1. Ha-Tsfira (“The Siren”) was the first Hebrew newspaper with an emphasis on the sciences; it was founded in Warsaw and issued between 1862 and 1931. Return
2. HaMelitz (“The Advocate”) was the first Hebrew newspaper in the Russian Empire. It was founded by Alexander Cederbaum in Odessa in 1860. Return
3. Yamim (lit. “days”) In Eastern European communities it was customary for poor yeshiva students to eat at the table of a different homeowner each day of the week. Return
4. Fairy Tales by Dovid Bergelson. Return
5. Dr. Bernsztajn-Khanan headed the Zionist Propaganda Ministry of Russia. The “Return Letters” of the Zionist Center in Russia explained the Zionist idea and called the Zionists to practical work in Israel. Return

Reb Yoel was a rabbinical court judge in Radomsk and one of the closest confidants of Shlomo HaCohen. He was the most prominent Torah scholar among the grandsons of reb Yoel Sirkish who wrote the Bayit Hadash (therefore known by the acronym HaBa”ch).



Avraham Soyfer

Was and excellent author and very smart. The sayings he coined were used by all for many years after he passed away. People paid a high price for his books. He had one daughter whom the Tiferet Shlomo Rabbi ordered everyone to call 'buballeh' until she enters the chupah and 'Frymeta' afterwards. She was the wife of Rabbi Yaakov-Dovid z”l.



Reb Shmuel Zellwer

Reb Shmuel became a Radomsk rabbinical judge at an old age, in the days of reb Zvi-Meir HaChohen. A Torah scholar, he left a hand written manuscript titled “Shem MiShmuel”. He passed way in 1901 when he was 74 years old.



Reb Israel Zellwer

Reb Israel Zellwer, the son of the above mentioned Dayan Shmuel, became a dayan in the days of his father in 1891-2. Reb Israel was a Torah scholar who was certified as a teacher by the genius Reb Avraham Bornsztajn from Częstochowa who wrote “Eglei Tal” and by the genius Reb Yoav Yehoshua from Kintsk/Koński who wrote “Helkat Yoav”.

Reb Israel was a diligent Torah scholar and always busy with G-d's work. He was an impressive man, studying Torah and wisdom with everyone in his prayer house. Reb Israel was of the most prominent figures among the Sochaczew Hasidim, leading high-holiday prayers for the Sochaczew rabbi. I remember an incident when the building that housed the synagogue for many years was sold to a person who wanted to close it. They arrived one morning to find the synagogue desecrated: Torah books and all items on the dirty floor, the walls also dirty. Reb Israel then said that everyone involved will not live long and his words transpired. Within six months two of the men that took part in the desecration died and the family of the new landlord experienced great tragedy.

Dayan Reb Israel Zellwer

Unlike his father who was engulfed in Halacha and not involved in civic matters, Reb Tuvia was immersed in every civic issue and first for everything. His smart intelligent words were heard; his kind face and noble heart won everyone's affection. His total commitment to the town was such that he even delayed his plan to make Aliya to Jerusalem probably because he did not want to leave Radomsk without a leader and teacher. I may not be well informed because I was not in Radomsk in its last days. But I have been told about him and his benevolent activity.

Reb Tuvia perished in the Holocaust along with the entire holy community of our city. When I think of the holy of our town, tens of thousands of Israel, young, old, men, women and children whose blood was poured like water, my soul mourns and weeps. How did the forest hog manage to break the fence, enter the beautiful orchard, destroy and chew it. Uprooting the cedars of Lebanon. People of Radomsk, may the memory of our brothers be etched in our hearts until G-d avenges the Amalek of our time for everything they did to us.



House of the Kosher Butchers

Unfortunately, few Radomskers who knew the town's past survived. It is therefore important to document its history. A hundred years ago or so, a large poor labor family lived in Slostowice, a village near Radomsk. Villagers who passed by noticed the shutters closed in the middle of the day. They knocked on the door. When no response was heard, they broke in and found everyone cruelly murdered except one baby hidden under the bed.

The baby was taken to the nearby town Plawno where a tailor took him in. When the boy turned eight years old he began working, sewing buttons. For a certain amount of buttons, he was given one Kopek coin. The boy, Yaakov Erlich, added coin to coin until he had enough money to buy big houses.

Yaakov Erlich's house on 9 Krakowski Street was known as a community in itself. All the kosher butchers gathered in this courtyard as well as most of the town teachers, the rabbi, the doctor, the tailor and cobbler, the baker – everyone gathered in the courtyard of Yaakov Erlich's house.



Butcher Reb Noah Rubinstein

At the time, he was of the famous righteous people in town. A student of the Lublin Rabbi. From his first wife who died young, he had one son, reb Chanoch Hanech, who also became a butcher. From his second wife he had four sons and a daughter. His sons Tuvia and Mendel succeeded in making Aliya to Israel. Reb Noah was the gabai of the Ger house when the hospital was still in Aharon-Wolf's courtyard on Częstochowa Street.

Reb Noah was a prominent kosher butcher in Radomsk. When he passed away at a ripe old age and with a good reputation, his son reb Chanoch Hanech replaced him. Reb Chanoch was a good natured and friendly butcher in the spirit of the Mishna: “greeted every person kindly”. He earned well but was burdened with raising many sons. He passed away at a young age and the town deeply mourned him. Although his son Hirsh was still young and not married, Hirsh was accepted a kosher butcher.

Butcher Reb Noah Rubinstein

A Vurka-Amshinov Hasid, Reb Mikhal Poznanski was and outstanding butcher. A righteous and dignified man who wrote well respected books on kosher butchery. He liked to use “expressions”. Loved by people and impeccable in his work. He was the liveliest spirit among the Radomsk butchers. He passed away with a good reputation at a ripe old age. He was replaced by his son reb Yechzkel.



Butcher Reb Yechzkel Poznanski

He had the qualities of his father. Involved in community life and a good butcher. He helped the poor and orphans. Two of his sons became butchers in his lifetime. Son Yitzhak Poznanski was a butcher in a spa city in Czechoslovakia and reb Yechiel Poznanski lived in France. Reb Yechiel married the daughter of reb Yosef Bar Gelbard who had a watch shop in the market.

Butcher Reb Yechzkel Poznanski

Born in Częstochowa to a Torah scholar. His brother is a highly esteemed Torah scholar who is a member of the Tel-Aviv Rabbinate.

At the center of the large courtyard of Reb Aba Szwarc, separated from the rest of the houses, stood the synagogue of Hassidei Strykow. Following are the eminent synagogue patrons.

First and foremost was the rabbi – Rabbi Yaakov Dovid. His followers included the entire congregation of “Bikur Holim” synagogue, almost 400 landlords, honest and simple people who loved their rabbi very much.

Reb Israel Tiberg was a humble Hassid known for interesting stories he told about righteousness and for his emotional tearful prayer. He was devoted to Torah and Avoda.

Reb Mendel Lakhman was a pillar of the synagogue community. Fueled by holy enthusiasm, he collected significant tzedaka and gemach charity for which he was well known throughout the town.

Reb Mordechai Mendel Hirszberg was a Radomsk dignitary. I remember his excitement when the cantor of the big Beit Midrash announced the traditional Yom Kippur Katan at the head of each month. If he was on his way and worried about being late to Mincha prayer minyan – he would hire a carriage to bring him there on time.

Reb Libky Donski's work was holy Torah study which he did day and night. He was master of the Torah reading at the Great Synagogue and of the morning prayer on the High Holidays. He blew the shofar well. In between he prayed with everyone at the Beit Hassidim. A nice man, endearing, gentle soul. Honest and modest.

Reb Yitzhak Shaya son-in-law of Reb Bril Shenkar. It is impossible to forget this gentle soul who was liked by everyone who knew him. His brother-in-law Reb Meir Lebenreikh is memorable for proudly controlling his anger despite everything he went through.

Reb Chaim Wargon was an honest man, righteous and humble. He was among the poets who helped Shlomo Chazan and even knew how to read musical notes.

Reb Berishl Jurkewicz was one of the Hassidim elderly. He handed out schnapps to everyone on study days to fulfill his Talmudic obligations.

May we also remember these G-d fearing Hassidim: Reb Meir Naftali Janowski; Reb Yeshaya Greichter son of Dovid Greichter who earned two tables and was a gentle Hassidic soul; Reb Dovid Meirl and Reb Gershon Kaminski righteous and humble; Reb Leibel Nordman honest and decent; Reb Israel Tiberg devoted to the Torah; Reb Dovid Rapaport son-in-law of butcher Reb Henich, son of the Rabbi Chaim Rapaport who helped the poor; Reb Hirschel son-in-law of Reb Zvi Wincentowski an excellent man loved by many; Reb Israel-Aharon Landau and Reb Yeshaya Zylberszac and more.

It is impossible to mention the names of all those who came to pray at this synagogue that had an honorable circle of patrons, all Hassidim and excellent men of action in Radomsk.

It is a pity for those who are gone and no longer to be found. The woodcutter rose, cut the tree with the root, chopped the branches that were the women and children. There are no words left to cry over the huge loss to Beit Israel.

The toddler teachers were an integral part of the town's way of life. Every 3-year-old boy was sent to either reb Yehoshua Pachter, reb Mikhal Melamed or reb Yosef Ber. In order to avoid a situation where the boy looks at something impure, his parents would wrap him in a tallit and carry him to the Cheder where he studied the Hebrew alphabet. This is how the children of Israel began to learn the Torah.

Every teacher had his unique approach and teaching system. Each tried to solve the problem of planting the information in the toddler's heads in a different way.

The Cheder often lacked basic comfort conditions. The kitchen was used both as a dining room and a bed room. The children-students would usually spend the entire day at the rabbi's house and were involved in the household activities. The income from teaching toddlers was not sufficient to support a family and other forms of livelihood were necessary. Some wives sold salted fish in the market and daughters sewed and mended cloths until midnight. Although even the additional income was not enough to lift them from poverty, the teachers were honest and worked hard to provide the toddlers with sufficient Torah knowledge and they were cared for when they were in need.

The teachers of the older boys were worse off. The older boys pestered the teachers, played cards under the table, pulled pranks, and ignored the rabbi. The teachers of the older boys risked their health trying to drill some Torah into these boys' heads. Income was always threatened by the boys leaving in favor of another teacher despite the best of efforts.

During holiday seasons each teacher would go from one landlord's house to another to beg they send their boys to him by making various promises about their teaching methods. Every Shabbat the teacher would come to the boy's house to test him in front of his parents. If the boy knew the Talmud page or the Torah section read that week at the synagogue – he received Shabbat fruit and an affectionate pinch of his cheek. And if G-D forbid he didn't – it was the teacher's fault even if the boy was retarded or stupid.



Reb Yehoshua Pachter

Reb Yehoshua was a teacher of toddlers. He lived in the courtyard of Yaakov Erlich (Pyontek) where many teachers lived. He was the oldest of them. Reb Yehoshua who had a big white beard was a good natured man, kind to his young students and always very patient with them. His daughter Sarah helped him, teaching girls to read and write, especially inscribing Jewish marriage contracts (known as ketubot).


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Reb Gershon Kaminski

Himself a praised disciple of the renowned Rabbi of Kaminski, reb Gershon taught Gemara and served as an arbitrator at the Yeshiva. He could have continued his studies but was devoted to the toddlers at his Cheder and did not have time. The pupils loved him for the wonderful stories he told them after their Torah studies. He was a good man and a virtuous Hassid. His wife was the granddaughter of reb Avraham Soyfer. Rabbi Shlomo HaCohen, the Tiferet Shlomo, ordered she be called 'buballeh' until her wedding day and so it was – under the chupah she was given the name Frymeta.



Reb Pinchas Wolf

Reb Pinchas was a Kotzk Hassid, and old respected man. He had few pupils but his wife Malka'le had a successful fabric business. Their only daughter married Mordechai Markowicz and moved to Belgium.



Reb Yosef Ber

Reb Yosef was a toddler teacher who lived in the house of reb Shabtai Fairman. Once the young boys got used to his scary tallness and dark skin, they loved his good nature.



Reb Mordechai-Yosef Jakubowicz

Reb Mordechai was a Vurka and Alexander Hassid. Those who did not study at Reb Mordechai's never experienced the true sense of a Cheder. He was very strict. The unfortunate child caught day dreaming or playing during a lesson would be properly spanked. The parents were pleased because the content penetrated and stuck with the children. A scholar himself, reb Mordechai studied Gemara, Rashi commentary and the Tosafot with the students. His son, Rabbi Yehezkel Jakubowicz, who was a rabbi in the Polish town Ryki had the good fortune of making Aliya. Their large family and its branches all perished in the hands of the hateful person.



Reb Chaim-Dovid Dudkewicz

Reb Chaim-Dovid's father was called “doctor” because he won the hearts of his pupils with his noble qualities and because although a tailor by trade he knew some medicine. Reb Chaim-Dovid was also good natured. Everyone loved and respected him, he never pestered a child. A more G-d fearing man than most, he instilled a good measure of this piety in this pupils. He diligently studied Gemara, Rashi commentary and the Tosafot. His daughters helped with livelihood by sewing undergarments. When they sang while working he reprimanded them that the voice of a singing woman reduces income.



Reb Reuven Wargon

Reb Reuven was a Vurka and Alexander Hassid, a virtuous man, intelligent and an excellent reader. He lived in the market at Ozer Goldkorn's. He had no sons but did have daughters who's help with income was critical. Reb Reuven was the son of reb Shmuel Wargon who was the son-in-law of reb Moshe Freiman grandson of Reb Fishli from Strykow.



Reb Yitzchak Fajner

Reb Yitzchak was a Vurka Hassid, the son-in-law of reb Mordechai-Yosef Jakubowicz married to Esther. He was an insightful pedagogue who taught the Chumash and Rashi. A good and helpful man.



Reb Fishel Ofman

Reb Fishel taught Chumash, Rashi and some Gemara. He was a good cantor at the synagogue of the Amshinov Rabbi. In old age when he was blind he recited all the high holiday prayers by heart.



Reb Yankel Melamed

Reb Yankel supervised all the Cheders in Radomsk for a short while until he turned to trade, travelling with a small stall of several cloth items to town fairs in the district. Although the income was insufficient for an honorable existence, he preferred it to teaching toddlers. He was an intelligent Jew and Torah scholar and above all else a truthful honest man.



Reb Aharon-Zvi Aronowicz

Reb Aharon-Zvi of the Vurka Hassidim managed a yeshiva in the Rabbi's synagogue in Radomsk. He studied Gemara, Rashi commentary and the Tosafot with the yeshiva men. An excellent scholar, he was also accomplished in geometry and algebra. He had three daughters and two sons. One of the daughters married the son of reb Tuvia Kalka. She passed away during a crisis and the city mourned her dearly.

Reb Chaim Rapaport told me that his father reb Rafael Rapaport had a tobacco store where eminent people came to shop. Reb Aharon-Zvi arrived one day at the same time the French manager of a large steel factory was there. The Frenchman was also an accomplished mathematician. Reb Rafael turned to the Frenchman and said: “You boast that you know mathematics but I tell you this Jew probably knows mathematics better than you even though he never went to university”. The Frenchman angrily suggested a math problem for reb Aharon-Zvi to solve. Reb Aharon-Zvi promised to solve it in one day and indeed he handed the Frenchman his solution the next day. The Frenchman was astonished – for his own solution to this problem he received a prize and excellence certificate and if he had not seen it with his own eyes he would not have believed it could be solved without formal education.



Reb Yitzhak B”R Gershon

Reb Yitzhak was the son-in-law of reb Meir Ber, a student of the Lublin Rabbi.

I will favorably add mention here of the following people: Reb Avraham Melamed brother-in-law of Szmulewicz; reb Yodel Melamed; reb Lipa Melamed; reb Hirsh-Leib Melamed (“the blond”); reb. Henikh-Fishel (“Kotzker's”); reb Zainwel Melamed (“teacher”); reb Yaakov-Yosef Melamed; reb Berish Chechura Melamed; and all of the spiritual, faithful, altruistic, hardworking people who taught toddlers of Israel the Torah so that they be G-d fearing and whole.

Among the town institutions was a school for the poor where hundreds studied reading, writing, Chumash and Rashi for free. There were times in which the Radomsk Talmud Torah was a very high quality school with graduates who knew Gemara and Tosafot. But usually the goal of the parents was to provide their children with only basic knowledge in Torah and Judaism then send them to work.


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The Talmud Torah was an important institution, headed for many years by the town Rabbi Israel Pinchas HaCohen who eventually passed the position on to others. Among the successors were: reb Moshe Mendel Rozenblat; Mr. Shlomo Gliksman; Mr. Yaakov Rozenbaum; Eli Grundman; Aharon Volf Szwarc; Berish Genszerowicz; Mrs. Dora Rozenbaum; Mrs. Manya Markowicz; and reb Yehuda Margolewski. The latter was very devoted to the Talmud Torah an assisted numerous students and teachers.

The Talmud Torah teachers were: reb Henoch Bornstein; reb Yitzhak Mendel Jurkiewicz; reb Yosef Ber; Shamai Melamed and his son Avraham; reb Shlomo Koss; and reb Yeshayahu Frisz.

The Talmud Torah did not have a place of its own. Studies were held in the connecting corridors of the Synagogue. Occasionally, when a wealthy landlord passed way, the children would join at the head of the funeral procession blessing the deceased.

Radomsk was an industrial city. When you entered the town by train you immediately saw two furniture factories – Thanet and Yaakov-Yosef Cohen – as well as a large metal casting French factory that employed hundreds of Christian workers. Industrial businesses provided employment and income to the majority of the Radomsk population.

Russian and Jewish workers were already organized under separate organizations in 1905 when the first Russian revolution began. Jewish labor activities were held by the Bund, Poalei Zion, and the Socialist Society. Leaders of the Bund were: Yakov Rosenblat, Eli Barda & Zakin Szrajber. At Poali Zion: Melech Grossman, Tiberg Zusman, Yaakov Witenberg, Avraham Beser, Dovid Krause, Mordecai-Zelig Rozenblat, and Leah'le Walonski. The Socialist Society was led by Hershel Krause, Simcha Kalka, Hershel Epsztajn and Shlomo Bugajski.

Strikes in work places owned by Jews were usually organized by the Jewish labor parties together but there were exceptions such as the sock-workers strike that was organized by Poalei-Zion because most of them were Poalei-Zion members. The walkout of the Jewish female cooks that included the cooks who worked in the Rabbi's house was also unique. Rabbi Yehezkel z”l called a meeting and demanded that Jewish homes not employ the cooks because they were influenced by the young Jews of “Achdut” and cannot be trusted with Kashrut issues. But the strike ended with a victory for the cooks who were all returned to work, even in the Rabbi's house.

In 1904/5, the year of the war between Russia and Japan, Radomsk was a recruitment center for new soldiers from western Poland. On the one hand, the army presence in town provided livelihood for the Jewish population. On the other, the newly recruited soldiers often looted Jewish stores and attacked pedestrians. In response, the Jewish labor movements set up self-defense teams. The wealthy Jews were pressured into purchasing the weapons for these groups. Those who initially refused had to eventually donate double. Dloviak the policeman was paid to inform of weapon searches ahead of time, which helped avoid them being discovered and confiscated. The self-defense teams were very well organized, showing up to restore order at the first signs of provocation from the young soldiers. Soon, the new recruits no longer dared hurt Jews.

Jewish wheeler-dealers known as “makhers” were hired to release Jews from the Polish Army: Hananya Lewkowicz, Yosef Bohm, and Leizer Rozanski.

Members of the Jewish labor parties would meet at teahouses while large assemblies took place on Shabbat afternoons at the Beit-Midrash so that if the police arrived the assembled would be engaged in the “business” of prayer and studying Gmarah. Poalei-Zion had a small synagogue at Mindl Lipszic's house where they met every Shabbat to pray along with members of the Bund and the Socialist Society. The house had a library that they used to discuss the distribution of money to the Jewish congresses. I remember one meeting that hosted a Bund speaker from Częstochowa. Among the hecklings were objections such as: “tell us why you don't like Zion when it is to Zion we pray from the Siddur - to the return to Zion with mercy. It is your choice to be with the Gentiles but don't hinder others making Aliya to Zion”.

Assemblies that women attended took place in Gunther's garden and behind the Christian cemetery.

When the anti-Jewish persecution expanded and some of the labor activists left Radomsk, Melech Grossman, Tiberg Zusman, Yaakov Witenberg and Mordecai-Zelig Rozenblat established a public library for workers.

In 1909, S. Wajner opened a factory that manufactured wooden buttons and hired Jews. Despite the Rabbi's objection to Jews doing work that goes against the Jewish law (Halacha) 'thou shall not damage' which includes cutting down forest trees to make buttons – the Jews continued to work at the factory and with time more button factories were opened.

Like other towns in Poland at the time, a Radomsk lawyer named Haim Zaken founded a Nightingale Group in response to the ban imposed by the Russian regime on any political activity by parties or associations. The famous musician H. Bansman and the conductor Gelbard were invited to serve as artistic managers. The group was active for two years between 1910-1912 then dwindled and closed because a large portion of the Radomsk youth migrated far and wide.

Public activity came to a halt. Only several loyal members were left in each political party: Mordecai-Zelig Rozenblat, Dovid Krause, Reuven Okrent, and M. Numberg from Poalei Zion; Hershel Krause from the Socialist Society. Not a single person remained from the Bund. Everyone including the zealous such as Zaken and Szrajber covered themselves in Talitot and returned to the ancient Beit-Midrash. Every so often an activist such as Waldfogel from Poalei-Zion - one the few associations left in Częstochowa - would visit Radomsk to lecture at illegal assemblies.


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In 1911 I travelled to Krakow, that belonged to Austria at the time. My purpose was to make Aliya to Eretz Israel. Political activity was free in Krakow and I was relieved. I met the Poalei-Zion leaders S. Sagan, Jacob Katzner and Dr. Wahrhaftig. I also ran into a Radomsk group: Shlomo Rodelsan, Ruwen Najkron and others. Thanks to these friends I reached Vienna and from there to Israel where I stayed for three years.

In 1914 I returned to Radomsk where my grandmother Hinda Grosman lived. I was welcomed as honored guest. Even the Rabbi Reb Shlomo Chanoch Hakohen invited me to his house to tell him details of events in the Holy Land (he and his family were later shot and killed by the Germans in Warsaw). I was also invited by my Poalei-Zion friends to travel to Częstochowa, Bendin and Sosnowiec to lecture about life in Israel.

The frozen Jewish social-political life in Radomsk thawed and awoke only after the Austrians conquered the city during WWI. In the first months of the war Radomsk was conquered back and forth by Russian and Austrian forces. There were periods with no local government during which a city police force as formed that Jews could also join, but with the return of the Russians to Radomsk it was dissolved and the Jews suffered greatly. On December 14, 1914 Austria finally kept hold and the city was liberated from the frequent exchange of rule. The economic situation of the Jews was so bad that most were only able to survive from selling tea and cakes to soldiers or from smuggling food products from villages to cities and from Austrian territories to German territories. The city of Radomsk was under Austrian rule but its train was conquered by the Germans. There were many Jewish soldiers in the Austrian army, among them Zionist activists that helped the local Jewish population as best they could.



End of 1914: The Youth Movement

As I emphasized, there was no organized political activity in Radomsk when I returned from Eretz Israel. Even those who were interested didn't believe it was possible to operate under Austrian occupation. Nonetheless, I was restless and saw it as my duty to keep the promise I gave my Poalei-Zion friends in Israel. So I began to work. I offered the youth meetings at my grandmother's house. Hinda Grosman who was known as Hinda Israel-Yakles lived with her son-in-law Shloymaleh and her daughter Gruna in a house with a wrap-around garden. With the gate closed, the house was like a fortress.

After the prayer one Shabbat, I invited the young people Jacob Aronowicz, Fishel Feldberg, Fiszer Paris, and Motl Feldberg. I presented an action plan and we agreed to meet once a week. Jacob Aronowicz suggested we meet at his place in a small room above a store in the “Crazy Salche's” building in the new market. Everyone had to bring an additional friend. We also had to prepare lectures on certain topics. I spoke about my memories of Eretz Israel. At a later stage we were joined by new members: Dovid Krause, Avraham Lipszic and others. Our role and responsibility was to manage public activity. Obviously, all our work was done secretly for fear of the Austrian Gendarmerie (armed forces).

Our circle grew with time and we rented an attic from Aharon-Volf Szwarc on Minchelena Street (above the soda factory) in a house that was shared with Beit-Chasidim Dagur and the community-department that distributed donations to the poor. We did not attract special attention; there was always noise and commotion in the yard thanks to a water stream that many people came to drink from.

A group of young people came to me with a request to train them in agriculture. We decided the best place to do this was the yard of the Great Synagogue that could be cultivated into a roaming-garden. The community elder Reb Leizer Tanzer set two conditions: a). The community will not pay for this work. b). It is forbidden for young men and young women to roam together. A letter of recommendation from the Rabbi Shlomo Chanoch Hakohen helped expedite the agreement with the community and the work began. Landlords lent us work tools and some donated small amounts. Many applied for the training and we had to divide them into shifts. This surprised everyone in town: Jews working the land! Jews, Pols, and even Austrians came to watch us work. Among them a Jewish officer in the Austrian army who was from Budapest whose name was Szubert. When he heard I was from Eretz Israel we became good friends. He supplied us with Army trucks and machinery to clear trash; to transport wood from Daniel Rozenbaum's forest and fence planks from Moshe Reichterman's sawmill; to spread sand over the garden paths; etc. The gardening was done with joy and high spirits.

When the garden was completed we held a celebration assembly. Among the presenters: The Zionist musician Moshe Lewkowicz, Zanvil Goldman, Sztatler, Finezilber, Nachman & Dovid Gold, Dovid & Herschel Krause, and myself. A party was held at the synagogue honoring the Jewish officer Szubert who was gifted a bible. The town cantor sang; Moshe Lewkowicz conducted over a choir; Dovid Krause gave a speech; and I opened the ceremony. The Keren Kayemet (NJF) 'Flower Day' fundraiser was also held in town that day by our friends Ester Szternfeld, Sara Feldman, Dobshe Gold, and Chava Engelhard.

The celebrations were a great success. People from all Jewish life and political ideologies attended. The garden was beautiful. All the paths were covered with sand, there were benches, and the visitors were proud of the youth that prepared and cultivated it. A water well was soon added to irrigate the plants.

We opened a library in our rented attic space above the soda factory. Each of us donated our books. We also organized our own cultural activities there but when the number of our followers reached 30 we had to move to a larger venue made possible by a special permit from the authorities to use the house of H. Shpolten. “The Youth Organization” was the chosen name.

Thanks to an official letter from officer Szubert that stated he is employing me and three of my friends, we were able to free local Jews who were kidnapped by the Austrians to work as forced labor. We met with representatives of “The Committee for the Protection of Eastern Jews” Dr. Bodenheimer and Prof. Majer Balaban who visited Radomsk. I travelled to Vienna and handed a memorandum I wrote on the persecution and discrimination against Jews in Radomsk to the representatives of the Zionist movement: Adolf Shtand, Engineer Robert Stricker, and Dr. Nathan Birnbaum.


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In Vienna – and back to Radomsk

The Jewish labor parties in Radomsk prevailed thanks to veteran members Reuven Okrent, Mordecai-Zelig Rozenblat, Fishel Feldberg, Motl Feldberg, Fiszer Paris, Gitel Birnbaum and others from Poalei-Zion; Hershel Krause, Pinkhas Kalka and Luzer Bajgelman from the Socialist Society; and from the Bund: Eliyahu Barda and Zakin Szrajber.

Years later, when I was in Vienna, I met Shlomo Waksman, Dovid Buchman and his uncle Shlomo Ben Kofer from Radomsk who updated me on the branched social-political activity after I left. Everyone in Radomsk knew my address and found me if they were in Vienna for business, health or any other reason. Friend Shlomo Waksman helped with this as well as Mikhal Cohen and other party members.

Through “The Committee for the Protection of Eastern Jews” I was able to release many of the Jews from Radomsk and its vicinity who were brought as prisoners of war to the camp in Vienna by securing proof of employment for them. Dr. Birnbaum's niece who managed a shoe factory was my right hand for this purpose. She provided me letters for the number of workers she 'needed'. One of the released prisoners was the son of the Radomsk Melamed Aharon-Hirsh Aronowicz.

Prof. Majer Balaban visited Radomsk in his position as advisor on Jewish Affairs of the main office of the Lublin region. He granted the thriving youth movement Cultura legal authorization and rights to organize cultural activities. He also certified the political activity of Poalei-Zion and the Socialist Society under the provision that they prepare and submit an organized work plan to the government institutions for inspection. The photographer Ludwig Wajnberg was chosen as chairman of Cultura, a mainly representational role. Everyone respected and appreciated his contribution to many achievements. Moshe Lewkowicz, a distinguished Ramdomskian, provided important assistance to the success of Cultura through his connections with local authorities. Upon my return from Vienna to Radomsk I too was honored for my help in advancing the political public activities.



On the threshold of the 1920s

The best public speakers visited Radomsk in those days. Yitzkhak Lau, Szurek, Nir, Layzer Lewin, Einroll Lewinski and others from Poalei-Zion; Krok, Mendelson, Federman, Frank and others from the Socialist Society; and from the Bund people such as Aronowicz, Wahl and Medem.

Given the rapid development of political movements in Radomsk, the Cultura hall was too small to serve as a general assembly place. In order to avoid friction and disagreement, Poalei-Zion rented the wedding hall from Shlomo Chazan's widow and turned it into a workers'-house.

I kept in touch with movement members in Vienna. Waksman sent us the Yiddish language Jewish Workers Newspaper (יידישער ארבעטער). The Radomsk Poali-Zion branch had a good reputation in central Warsaw which is why the most distinguished movement leaders visited us. When Yitzkhak Lau arrived to give a lecture about “Erez Israel as a Jewish settlement” the district advisor of political affairs Tamerl demanded he speak German but we overrode him and the talk was given in Yiddish.

In the days of the 1918 revolution, I travelled to Budapest and returned to Radomsk in May 1919. The army of General Jozef Haller caused great trouble for Polish Jews and especially for the Jews in Radomsk. But those were the last Polish reactionary events. The Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) and the Jewish workers' movements gained strength and won the first democratic municipal elections. The political Left in Radomsk received the majority of votes.

I married my girlfriend Chaya-Rivka Pashko in 1920. She was a very active member of Poalei-Zion in the cities of Bedzin and Sosnowiec. I moved to Sosnowiec where we helped our activists steal the boarder to leave Poland.

In 1923 we returned to Israel where we live to this day.

City Hall (on the left) and the Catholic Church (on the right)

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In the 20s of the previous century (1822-1826), a lengthy negotiation took place between the government institutions and the community of Piotrków, regarding debts imposed on the community from the period of the Polish Republic before 1795. The authorities claimed that at the time the community received loans from churches and monasteries in the vicinity and that the community did not pay the debts. After lengthy inquiries - a total sum of about 2500 zloty was set, the authorities demanded to pay it and the prosecutor's office demanded, for its part, to hasten the end of the affair. It was proposed to impose the payment of the above amount on all the communities and settlements, which were affiliated to Piotrków during the period of the Polish Republic, according to the distribution below:

The Jewish Settlements	Number of families once belong to Piotrków	The equal ratio they must pay on account of the annual interest		Payment for 5 years from 1 January 1822 to the end of 1827
		Groszy	Zloty	Groszy	Zloty
1. Belchatow	98	-	38	-	100
2. Tuszyn	97	18	37	-	188
3. Piotrków	592	14	50	-	254
4. Rozprza	131	24	27	15	139
5. Kamieńsk	72	27	50	-	250
6. Wadow	129	-	11	5	56
7. Radomsk	29	7	442	30	56
Total	1148	90	129	10	1147

The community leaders of Rozprza announced that they have never paid a similar tax to the community of Piotrków, and therefore they are not obliged to pay the amount of 254 zlotys for 5 years without the consent of their community members. A similar statement was made by the community leaders of Kamieńsk on the grounds that they never benefited from these loans. The representatives of Tuszyn declared that they never belonged to Piotrków and even now they do not wish to belong to it (they were an independent community and paid for the poll tax in and in Wieluń and Wieruszów, as they had proved in the receipt they submitted at this meeting).

The community leaders of Radomsk announced that only part of Radomsk was affiliated to Piotrków. If Piotrków will be authorized to do so by the authorities - it will be entitled to collect part of the payment. The leaders of Belchatow announced that their community did not belong to Piotrków, and therefore asked to release them from these debts.

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