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Older boys already studied Gemarah and Tosefos with the teachers Yoysef-Mordkhe,

Berl Viskitker, Avrom-Yisroel Urshins and others. Twelve- and thirteen-year-old boys already bore the entire yoke of Judaism. They studied with zeal, with a melody, in earnest and in depth.

Others already followed all the quirks of the Chasidim, and they gestured with their thumbs,

like their fathers and grandfathers did. They already studied Jewish ethics, as if they were

plunged in sin over their heads. Such lads already began to study by themselves. Often they would study all night, with feverish ecstasy. Others would travel to various yeshivas, they would wander in unfamiliar places, where they were fed as guests in wealthier homes^[24], and drank from the wellspring of Talmud.

But most of them started to vacillate. They snuck a peek at a secular book, or at the page of a newspaper. They started reading non-kosher things (fiction and science) and in fact they studied goyishe grammar, algebra and geometry… This was, in essence, the age of Jewish Enlightenment in Skierniewice. This led to great controversy. Pious zealots were literally fighting. And since the Jews of Skierniewice had always been hot-blooded, both factions, the religious fanatics and the heretics, were eager to fight. Neither side held back from bloodshed and breaking each other's bones. It was then that the “Fellowship of Unity” was established, which finally overcame the fanatics. Afterwards, it was no longer necessary to steal away to the outskirts of the town in order to take a look at HaTsfira [“The Siren”] and HaMelitz [“The advocate”]^[25], and to read a book by Mendele Moykher Sforim, Sholem Aleichem, a poem by Bialik, and an essay by Ahad Ha'am and Nahum Sokolow… For some of the lads, the transition was slow and gradual and consequently without particular repercussions. For many of them, however, the change was radical, quick and drastic. This resulted in their having to run away from the town. Others even left for foreign countries. So as not to be dependent on their fathers, they began to learn a trade and became good craftsmen.

That is what the “Renaissance” looked like for the youth of Skierniewice. From there, it was just one leap to the great, bubbling social life into which our youth threw themselves with enthusiasm. Indeed, proportionally, our activities in every area of social life exceeded by far the number of Jews in town…The fanatics placed a herem ^[26] on them. They persecuted not only young cultural activists but also their amilies, which

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Yitskhok Grinboym and the Zionist activists of all parties in Skierniewice Sitting from the right: Kalikshteyn, the Hebrew teacher Volman, Moyshe Rozenblat, Moyshe Rotblit, Yitskhok Shvarts, Shaye Rozenblum, Mordkhe Nayman, Yisroelke Shpikhler, Yitskhok Grinboym, Yekhiel Veynakht, Alter Levkovitsh, Leybl Tsudkovitsh, Yekhezkiel Levkovitsh, Meylekh Levkovitsh, Meyer Sharfharts, Yenkl Shvaytser, Dovid Himlfarb, Ben-Tsien Haus, Zelik Rotman. Standing from the right: the two heads from the door: Rozenblum and Rokhl Rozenblum, Shayele Bresler, Mordkhe Zilberberg, Yirmiyohu Rozenberg, Yosl Lando, Moyshe Shenitser, Mendl Gros, Ruvn Pintshevski, Moyshe Kurts, Tsalel Zeyler, Yitskhok Boymerder, Yenkl Koyen, Yenkl Zeyde, Yiskher Dzhalovski, Shmuel-Leyzer Segal, Leybl Lifshits, Yenkl Nayman, Moyshe Lando, Yoysef Firstnberg, Moyshe Zelman, Mendele Birnboym, Fishl Shvaytser, Shloyme Zakon, Berish Zakon, unknown, Yenkl Nayman, Leybl Sharfharts.

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were banned from shtibls and prayer houses. But time did its work: as soon as the first idealistic cultural activists started their selfless activity, it took hundreds of boys and girls by storm. The first swallows appeared so we knew that a new spring is coming. Some speakers were brought in from Warsaw and our own “reinforcements” also showed up. We organized conferences, lectures, fundraisers, theatrical performances, recitations, concerts and many other cultural events which were very well attended. Our youth so distinguished themselves that Warsaw political leaders, writers and artists who we had

Founder and leader of Brit Trumpeldor[27] Yisroel Glovinski

Yitshok Grinboym would always gladly accept the invitation to visit Skierniewice and devoted special attention to our youth.

Dr. Shiper, after his visit to Skierniewice, spoke in the Writers' Union in Warsaw with fondness and respect about our youth.

Avrom Hartsfeld visited Skierniewice, as a representative of the Jewish National Fund commission from the Land of Israel. On that occasion, all the Jewish youth came out to the railway station to welcome him. The “Brit Trumpeldor”^[27] organization, with Yisroyelik Glovinsky at its head,

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received him in a military fashion, giving orders in Hebrew. When Avrom Hartsfeld saw the huge crowd, as he alighted from the train, he refused to travel in a droshky. He took a few young people by the arm and began to march on foot into the city. All the young people followed him, singing songs from the Land of Israel. This was a spontaneous demonstration along the train station road, Pshernik, up to the meeting place of “Ahavas Tsion” which was located in the home of Daytsher. Once there, they really started dancing, singing and eagerly hearing the important news from the Land of Israel until late at night. The next morning, he showed up with a report from the Land of Israel in front of a fully packed hall in the “Oaza” cinema. Years later, when I met Hartsfeld in Jerusalem, he still spoke enthusiastically about the youth of Skierniewice.

Once, after a lecture by Meylekh Ravitsh in “Satyr” hall, which the “Bund Organization”^[28] had arranged, he got into a big peasant cart, with a large group of youth from the “Bund” and headed out on an excursion through the woods. There they passed the time with storytelling, singing, and fun and games until late in the night.

Segalovitsh was moved by our welcome and always spoke sentimentally about his Skierniewice readers and audience.

Perets Markish used to enjoy visiting us and afterwards spoke enthusiastically about our youth.

The same thing happened with actors, producers, political party leaders and cultural activists.

Each organization in town had its own meeting place and its own cultural committee, which took care of classes, library books, lectures and theatrical performances by visiting troupes and by their own drama club. The youth flocked to these organizations, which were full of life, joyful learning, knowledge and idealism. At the center of all these activities were the Zionist parties. Together, they were the force that had the greatest influence on

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the intellectual development of almost all the young people. The representative boards of both Christian and Jewish institutions were almost completely composed of influential people who were Zionist sympathizers. The Zionist groups and the Bund organization led all cultural activities. The other parties played an extremely limited role, because the Folkists^[29]), the communists, the members of Agudat Yisrael and others were small in number and weak in terms of cultural impact and consequently they had no access to the youth.

For a certain period, the great movement of “Hibbat Zion” (“Love of Zion”), which started with the Zionist congresses and with Dr. Herzl's Judenstaat,^[30] attracted almost all the inhabitants of Skierniewice: Chasidim and their opponents, observant Jews and free thinkers, rabbis and common people. Then it seemed as if Messianic times had arrived…But later,

A group of Zionist girls study Hebrew with the teacher Halter under the guidance of Yekhiel Lifshits and Shifre Bornshteyn Upper row, from the right: Rivke-Leye Zinger, Rivke Zelmanovits, Royze Holts, Miryem Leye Nayman, Khane Zhitelnitski, the teacher Halter, Rotman, Blime Karp, Shifre Bornshteyn, Yekhiel Lifshits. Second row, from the right: Liza Frenkel, Khantshe Bresler, Khane Rotman. With the sign: Frimet Grinboym, Sorele Shvitser.

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The first members of the Zionist organization Ahavas Zion “Love of Zion” First row, standing from the right: Arn Shiglits, Khayiml Lifshits, Arn Rozenboym, Yitskhok Shevats, unknown, Moyshele Lifshits, Yekhiel Muster. Second row, from the right: Leyzer Moshkovits, Bunem Tugetman, Khatskel Nayman, Yekhezkel Levkovits, Shmuel Bak, Mordkhe Shtern, Yenkl Vudki. Third row, from the right: Zelik Shenitser, unknown, Betsalel Daytsher, Rabbi Melikovski, Lipman Karp, Eliezer Freylekh.

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In Zionism they found their remedy, a way to continue to survive spiritually.

Among the Zionist leadership in Skierniewice at that time were: Shmuel Bak, Khayiml and Moyshele sons of Yokhebed Lifshits, Arn Roznboym, Yitskhok Shevats, Yenkl Vurka (who had already started raising the kronot [funds] and selling shares in the Jewish National Bank), Boyez Plotsker, Fishl Bornshteyn, Yekhiel Vaynakht, Sore Neyman, Miryem Borenshteyn, Dovid Shtshupak, Rivke Ventland and Rivke Karp. At that time, the idea of establishing Hebrew schools emerged. Then fresh forces joined those activities, among them: Khaym Bentshkovski, Yokhebed Vaynakht, Meylekh Liberman, Khayml Levkovitsh, Rozalye Finkelshteyn, the teacher Hershkorn, Khayim-Lozer Yitskovitsh and others. The Hebrew schools opened under the supervision of the good Hebrew educators: Osher Bakalar with his father and the teacher Sokolovski. Bakalar's personality had a strong influence on all the Zionist activities.

In our schools, Hebrew was taught in Hebrew. A strong love for the people and for the land of Jewish yearnings was instilled in the children. The children celebrated Lagboymer^[31], in the woods, together with their teachers. For the children, all the Jewish holidays took on a whole new charm, a different color and taste. The taste of the Land of Israel…

There were many romantic and intimate, cozy corners in Skierniewice.

On summer evenings and on snow-white winter nights, our youth would stroll by the large bridge, which led to the Wole^[32], and in the Zwierzyniec forests. The area was quiet, with beautiful villas and well-tended gardens, with flowers and greenery and with two beautiful rows of trees on both sides of the road. Field and forest released their enchanting aromas in the feverish blue of the bright moonlit nights, and every creature felt the urge to say a prayer and sing. An unseen bird among the branches, the crickets in the grass and the frogs in the marshes were all singing. Somewhere a shepherd drew out a haunting melodious tune on a pipe. One could hear the whimper of a fiddle and the wailing of a guitar coming from a villa. So the hearts of those who were strolling also opened up and all their feelings and yearnings, dreams and longings flowed together with the melodies of Zionist songs and workers' songs about brotherliness, freedom, justice and the struggle for a better and more beautiful future… about poverty and exile, about pioneers and martyrs for universal ideals… Oh my dear comrades and friends, wherever fate has carried you away, in whatever country you may be found, dear countrymen! Do you remember it, when we used to stroll and sing together? Do you remember how much heart and soul we put into the songs, such as Dort, vu di tseder [“There, where the cedar trees…”, In kuzhnie, baym fayer [“In the forge, by the fire”], El haTsiper [“To the bird”], Nisht zukh mikh dort, vu di mirtn grinen [“Don't look for me there, where myrtles grow green”]?… And whoever didn't sing, sighed and tears glistened upon girls' cheeks…

“Upon the high mountain, upon the green grass,

In silence I dreamed as a child of my happiness

What did I want? I don't even know.

I only know that it won't ever come back”

(Khayim Nakhmen Bialik)

But our young people did know what they wanted. They aspired to great deeds, yearning to go on far and wide paths. Our shtetl was too small for us, our wings were clipped. And every one of us yearned to rise higher and higher… There were no world problems that we didn't debate “upon the green grass”. Who among us didn't dream of liberating the world and the entire human race from sorrow and tears, from hatred and slavery?… Our hearts were full of love and the conviction of youth. Singing Yehuda HaLevy's song Ikh hob farlozn ale libste [“I have left all my beloved”], those with national consciousness saw themselves in the land of our ancestors, on the paths of the Bible, and in their feverish dreams they had already built a new Jewish life under palm and fig trees… And those with social consciousness ground their teeth and clenched their fists, singing Avrom Reyzen's Huliet, huliet beyze vintn [“Howl, howl raging winds”]. Even the yeshiva student who shut his Talmud found his fight song in May ko mashme lon? [“What do we learn from this?”]^[33] and turned his face towards progress… He trimmed his sidelocks, shortened his coat and bought a fedora instead of the Jewish cap… It's true – many wanted to avoid creating a scene at home and had two sets of clothing: at home – the long coat traditionally worn by observant Jews with the corresponding hat, and in the youth clubs – a jacket with a fedora… And later, too, they came to the Wole on the outskirts of town, to commune with nature, with all that puts forth leaves, grows and blossoms.

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On Shabbos mornings, and especially in the month of May, some groups would go off to the Zwierzyniec forests and spend their time there till noon, devouring the newest books and periodicals – whatever they could get. Everything was debated, discussed and sung. But when the train passed by along the nearby train tracks, everyone's hearts would start beating to the rhythm of the train wheels. The whistle of the locomotive, cutting through the air, silenced all of us. Field and forest, frogs and crickets, became still. And in the silence a strange longing for something faraway started gnawing at our hearts… to tear ourselves out of our cramped four walls and off into the wide world.

Well-to-do Jewish children aren't shkotskim and shikses.^[34] In those years, a Jewish boy and a Jewish girl would not dare go out strolling in town together. And yet, there were silent, low-key romances.

From the right, standing: Yitskhok Boymerder, Rivke Fershtenberg, Leybl Tsudkovitsh, Moyshe Rozenblat (Zionist pioneer), Meyer Rozental, Meyer Sharfharts Sitting from the right: Mordkhe Nayman, Sheyndl Rubin, Yosl Blat, Leybl Birnboym, Feyge Sharfharts In front: Kurts, Yenkl Shvaytser, Dovidtshe Shenitser

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Standing, from the right: Mendl Grayek, Yekhiel Gutman, Yekhiel Nayman, Shoyel Rozentsvayg Sitting: Zalmen Holts, Mendele Kosher, Pinkhes Shvarts, Avrom Lifshits

Organizations and parties used to hold different events near the Wole, such as assemblies, meetings, gatherings and lectures and that was one of the reasons why the area was such a favorite of the youth. On the other hand, for religiously observant Jews, simply going to the Wole smacked of heresy.

Years before, people would go strolling near the Dembes^[35], in the area of Rolinkski's mill. On both sides of the river there were small hills covered with high grass. So, it was nice to go there with a “heretical” book under one's long coat and lie down with it in the soft, fragrant grass. There they read for the first time

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the classics of Yiddish literature, immersing themselves in historical materialism; Bundists and Zionists led discussions, with Chassidic fervor and in a Talmudic sing-song.

Years after the First World War, when Poland became independent, Skierniewice too started to breathe easily. The palace, which had been closed off for years, was freely opened to the civilian population. Until then, one could only see the beautiful green treetops, surging and foaming like waves over the high, forbidding fence. The palace emanated not only beauty and mysteriousness, but also sadness – the sadness of empty alleys, without childish laughter, without love songs, without muffled whispers, without joy, without passion.

People told stories and legends about the palace in different versions. One thought was that the palace was much older than the town of Skierniewice and it was already standing before the Russian rule over Poland. There were legends related to the epoch of the kings of Poland. During the Tsarist period they built in the palace a beautiful train station with a beautiful hall, to which the civilian population never had access. Only after the palace was opened to the public was the train station used for theatrical performances and as a ballroom. At that time, young people began streaming through the tree-lined paths of the palace park and filling them with laughter, joy and song. The park was finally restored, and the youth got another romantic corner of paradise.

There were also houses for youth to come together. Houses with open doors. Warm cozy corners.

One such house was Simcha the Lame's. He was a schoolteacher, but also a clever, progressive person, well-read, very knowledgeable and steeped in politics.

Chasidic youth, caught up in the Haskalah^[36] soaked up Torah at Simcha Lando's. At his place, they heard the proper interpretation of a biblical verse in a difficult tractate.?? He made articles by Ahad Haam, Smolenskin, and Pinsker clear and understandable. But only then did the arguments really flare up between the young Chasidic men Chayim the Philosopher and Yakov-Yitzkhak the Sharp-tongue, who was Reb Yosef the shamesh's son-in-law. The latter young man was a Talmudic prodigy. He just quibbled and split hairs and gestured with his thumb, or he became completely engrossed for hours in a game of chess. Zelig Kolski the son of Reb Meyer-Ber, Kasriel-Moyshe the son of Simkhe and Yenkl Berman used to debate in raised voices, eyes flashing and lips foaming. It seemed as if the whole world would be in grave danger, if they didn't solve all the world's problems. The whole universe was

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on trial and awaiting the verdict with pounding hearts. It was another miracle that no definitive conclusion was ever reached and no debate was ever finished… because one or the other faction would be joined by Shloyme Lipshits, Leybl Lipshits, Yekhiel Mendl the butcher's son, Mordkhe Shtern, Meylekh Tevye Leybish's son, Anshl Abramovitsh, Khayim Bintshkovski and Yenkl Levkovitsh. The temperature rises; the passion flares up. Citations from Spinoza, Kant, Marx, Engels, Dr. Herzl and Chaim Zshitlovski fly from one side to the other, like stones at each other's heads. Passages from the Talmud, verses of Bible and pages from Yiddish literature fly back and forth. Finally, when all the cannons have already fired their shots, and the debaters have knocked themselves out, they turn their gaze solely upon Simkhe Lando…

Simcha Lando is sitting the entire time at the head of the table. His half-paralyzed body is wrapped and covered with a warm blanket. But his head is clear and alert. His ears didn't miss a single word. The whole time he kept silent and listened – and weighed and measured every word. When everyone becomes quiet, he gives his opinion. He expresses it in a quiet, unhurried way, word by word. Leisurely and without losing his temper, with authority and certainty, and above all: without verbosity. With simple words. And for everyone, everything becomes clear and understandable. They hear him out with great respect and his point of view is adopted, like a law of Moses from Sinai.

One would rarely see Simcha the Lame in town. And when one did – he was on a little cart, pushed by students and admirers. His children were Efroym, Freydl and Yosl. Yosl was a social activist, in particular – in “Hitachadut”^[37]. He is the only survivor from his entire family and now lives in Israel.

Aryeh Oshern's was an entirely different place. Here horse dealers, butchers and farm produce sellers would gather together. They would tell each other stories about peasants, fights between farm produce sellers and thugs, about robbers attacking and plundering along the way and how heroic butchers and horse dealers faced off against them and drove away the assailants.

It was here, in the pub at Aryeh Oshern's, that they were the first to realize that Nekhemte's Moyshe was lost. They whispered about it for a long time until several butchers and horse dealers got together with some policemen and set off into the woods, searching for the man who had disappeared, and they actually found him. Bandits had fallen upon him in the forest, robbed, killed and buried him among the trees. His body was found and they also discovered the murderers. Many years later, the same fate befell his son,

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Nekhemte Moyshe's son. Like his father, he too was killed, robbed and buried in the forest. And in this case too, with the help of the butchers and horse dealers, the robbers were caught.

Meyer Leon, a produce-seller from Skierniewice

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Jews. With their rough speech, of few words, they knew well how to tell a tale, keeping their listeners in suspense. It was for this very reason that one could find in the pub at Aryeh-Oshern's, people from very different social classes, who would come especially to hear stories told by produce sellers, butchers, horse dealers and orchard owners.

A different circle of people would frequent each tavern, but at Zelig Shenitser's, people from all social classes would come together: a Chasidic young man and a craftsman, a Haskalah-youth and a yeshivah student. All political parties and organizations. Here one could learn the news of the entire town: which couple was romantically involved, which married couple could find no peace at home; which householder was in good standing, and which businessman was ruined and on the verge of bankruptcy. Here one could take a chance at various games, but chess occupied the place of honor. The best chess players battled here and whoever won was crowned the chess-king of Skierniewice… The fiercest battles over that chessboard were fought by Gavriel Zelman and Meylekh Greyek, and Laybl Sharfharts with Hershl Gotlib or with Laybish Shteinfeld.

The small tables were besieged by meddlesome spectators, who would offer advice about which moves to make: “Idiot! Blockhead!” Tell him “Check!”; “He's going to fall through the roof!”

“If I go like this…” he sings under his breath in a Talmudic sing-song – “then he'll go like that…” If I move my bishop, I'll be in trouble. But if I jump with my knight and threaten the queen? She's trapped. Like this! Where does the queen go?” Zelig Shenitser, the owner of the tavern, was also among the noisy spectators. He was not one of the greatest at chess, but he was a passionate player. “He's putting you in “Check?” He pushes the king forward. “If you move there, you have him in Loyvitsh!”… But this move is actually the worst. The chess pieces are withdrawn and the players continue to study the board. And the chant begins again: “Tshiribimbom-bom, tshiribimbombom, tshiri, biri, bimbom! And they sip a small glass of beer along with a plate of spicy peas…

Young people liked to spend time at Avremtshe Shvaytser's. Zionists, Bundists and people from different social classes and organizations would come here. They got a fresh-baked bun, a piece of good herring, a sour pickle and an eyer-kikhl.^[38] There was, of course, no lack of glasses of beer. Yoshke Veter, Lozer Tsudkovitsh and Mendl Kosher were frequent customers. So too Shaye Rozenblum, the cultural organizer, and Leybele Libeskind the Bundist, Monesh Amzel and Zelig Rotman, Elie Dzshialovsky and Shloyme Papirbukh. They conversed, discussed, and bantered. Each one displayed his full oratorical skill and shot off his entire set of arguments, but no one ever persuaded another to change his mind…

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Zionists remained Zionists and Bundists remained Bundists. But all were good, passionate, dear Jews.

Sorele, Avremtshe Shvaytser's daughter managed the business. She was friendly to everyone and listened closely to each person with a smile. Because of Sorele's smile, more than a few people debated with even more passion and tried hard to show off their thorough knowledge, wisdom and talent… Avremtshe Shvaytser himself was a widower, a Talmudic scholar and a truly observant Jew. When he had only a bit of time, he pored over a religious text with a heartfelt chant. And he had a heartfelt chant, because he himself was a big-hearted man. He was also a big-hearted prayer leader. As a Jew, he was all heart. But when he was at work he didn't show anybody his religious devotion. He had a joke, a funny story or a quip for everybody, a man with a great sense of humor. Everybody liked him. His patience and his tolerance for other people was particularly admirable. Playing cards was definitely not his favorite thing, but when a group of people sat at his place and played cards till late at night, he didn't display his displeasure.

In our town we used to call Avremtshe Shvaytser's tavern “Swiss Valley”^[39] and there our young people didn't feel inferior at all to the Warsaw intellectuals in their famous cafes. Our “travelers” – Hersh-Dovid Abramovitsh, who we would call “Ruskie”, Yitskhok the little rebbe, Tsime the rebetsin's son and Max Neyman, Arn's son – would all come here. And when they began to tell the wonderful stories of their distant journeys, everyone would gather around them and hang on every word.

Hersh-Dovid “Fonye” was famous among us for his trips abroad, without train tickets. He once even traveled to America, without a ship's ticket and without any documents whatsoever. Only in Castle Garden^[40] did they catch him, the sly fellow, and immediately sent him back on the next ship…He would outwit all the conductors and inspectors, playing tricks on them, and making fools out of them.

There were other cozy corners in town at Ade Raykhenbakh's, after her marriage to Getsl Hershkorn, at the dental technician Trokhe's, and others. The warm, cozy corners where we spent our youth, how can they be forgotten?

On Friday mornings, one could already feel in the town the feverish anxiety of preparing to bring Shabbos into one's home. Many housewives already began to prepare for Shabbos on Thursday evenings. Even goyim, peasant men and women, knew that it was Erev Shabbos and they helped supply the housewives with all their needs. Christian townspeople, who would buy only in Jewish shops which were closed on Shabbos, would also go shopping for their needs on Friday. Craftsmen hurried to finish up their work and merchants on the roads hurried to get home. In the marketplace, the price of fish, vegetables and fruit fell by the hour. The women vendors in the market screamed until they were hoarse, seeing the full open barrels of fish that they still had, and which could not, God forbid, rot while still in their possession. So: “Young ladies! Buy fresh fish, living fish, right from the water! In honor of Shabbos!”

By Friday afternoon, the noise and tumult and lively commotion had already begun to calm down and become still. One by one the shops would begin to close with metal bars, bolts and locks. In the marketplace, the stalls were taken down, and the remaining pieces of merchandise were dragged home. Leybish the droshky driver was the first to ride home. He was a religiously observant Jew. For that reason, indeed, any rebbe, rabbi, rabbinic judge, Chassid or just good observant Jew only rode with Leybish Smat's kosher droshky… And after Leybish, all the other Jewish droshkies hurried home: Itshe the droshky driver, Dovid the droshky driver, Hale Tate and others. With noise and commotion, the coachmen drove home: Khayim and his son Noyekhele, Yisroel-Itshe, his oldest son, who was already an independent coachman, Kezl the coachman and Henekh Kune with his old nag.

The market porters standing by the large shops disperse quietly. Porters… dear, honest, hardworking people! Where else could you find a porter like the Chassid Avrom Khlodne Noykhovitsh? – A Jew – a learned man, with beautiful Talmudic quotes. Walking with a heavy load on his shoulders and holding on with one hand to his belt, so his acute hernia wouldn't burst open – he would crack jokes and offer an ingenious commentary. A Jew who had more faith than troubles, he never despaired nor lost his sense of humor. Mates-Leybele was a short little Jew, who was able to load himself up with weight like a camel. Motl the porter, the elder Pashkevitsh, was a decent, quiet man… It was interesting how the Jewish porter came to have the illustrious name of the famous Russian general…^[41]

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He served many years in the Russian military and traveled to the ends of the earth. He was a good-natured youth and his officers used to love to entertain themselves with him. Once they dressed him up in general's clothing and said, “You are General Pashkevitsh. Go out and lead the company soldiers!” And our Pashkevitsh, as he himself recounted, did not hold back, but went out and shouted in Russian, “Attention!” – and all the soldiers stood straight as arrows, and he began to give orders one after another. He even began to give orders to his own officers and, for that very reason, his career as a general ended… But the name Pashkevitsh stuck with him. Even his wife was later called “the general's wife” and his son, Khayim-Alter was also called Pashkevitsh. But was there anyone among us who even remembered his real last name?… Yet, General is General and Shabbos is Shabbos! The worn-out general abandons his position in the market and hurries home, to prepare himself to receive the angels of peace and the ministering angels of Shabbos…

Women with cholent hurry through the streets to the bakers. They carry their pots and the little containers of kugel to Yerachmiel Pintshevski, Khayim-Volf Kokhanek, to Yoynele, to Nisn, to Khayiml Pintshevski and, in another corner of the town, to the baker of Lowicz. The Lowicz baker was known for his exaggerated stories about Sevastopol, where he had performed his military service and where he had a revolver, with which he often chased hooligans, robbers and bandits… Everyone used to laugh at him and his tales, but loved hearing his fantastic stories anyhow… Oh, no! We've been talking too long here. The Shabbos candles need to be lit soon and…

“Dvoshe dear! We're going to – God Forbid! – violate Shabbos! They are already putting the cholents into the oven!”

“They are already putting the cholents into the oven and Yente-Dvoyre can't get through all the work in time!… She's still wearing her apron!”

All of the shops are already locked up, doors and gates closed. Finished with hustle and bustle, commerce and work, the burdens of the entire week. Shabbos has arrived in the world.

In former years, Khayim Poper the shames would go around with a wooden hammer and knock “Time to go to shul!”

Through the windows, one can see Shabbos candles burning on tables laid in white. The men, fathers and sons, are all already away in shul, in shtibls, and in study houses, welcoming Shabbos. It's quiet in the streets and alleyways, lonely, dark and still. The handful of Christian shops are swallowed up in the hushed darkness and gloom. The light of these few shops is so miserably pale that it barely illuminates

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their workweek atmosphere. And it becomes still more pale and commonplace when the Jews come back from praying. They walk slowly, step by step. Shabbos has, after all, arrived in the world. No one is going to steal their business away. They had, after all, cast off the entire yoke of the work week, freed themselves from every burden. What's the hurry?

“Good Shabbos”!

“Good Shabbos…”, householders, neighbors and friends wish each other.

“Good Shabbos…” They come into their homes and with the same melody soon begin to sing “Shalom Aleichem”^[42] And everyone makes kiddush to the same tune their father sang, inherited in turn from his forefathers. And Chassidim sing the tunes of their rebbe.

After the meal, the older people retire to bed and young people head out into the street, some to the organizations and others to the dark tree-lined paths of the palace park, or the quiet Mniszka alley.

On Shabbos mornings, everyone slept a little later. And when they opened their eyes, it was such a delight to lie in bed, carefree and lazily stretching their limbs, cracking their bones and listening to the sweet singsong of their father reading over the weekly Torah portion, or reciting the first prayers of the morning service.

A little later, when the fathers were in shul, the youngsters would stroll in the sunny streets, dressed up in their Shabbos best. And if some sinful little thought arose in their minds, a little heretical – it was overtaken by the prayers from the study houses and shtibls, which carried out into the street and made them feel guilty.

At the very same time, there are lectures by speakers from Warsaw or locals. The lectures end at the same time as the prayers in the study houses and young people hurry back home at the same time as their fathers. The fathers wear velvet hats and long silk coats; and the most religiously observant wear prayer shawls over themselves, because they can never be sure whether the eruv^[43] is unbroken, which would allow them to carry throughout Shabbos.

One can hear the singing of the Shabbos table songs through the doors and windows of all the Jewish homes. The last women hurry home from the bakers with their cholents. The whole way, their hearts are pounding, wondering whether their cholent is good… But when they come home and take off the cover with the wax and there is a laugh at the sight of the rich, brown potatoes, the joy is boundless. Knifes, spoons and forks clink; they gnaw on the marrow bone and sing Shabbos songs…

After the meal, the elders lie down for a nap and enjoy the pleasure of Shabbos rest. But the young people don't rest. The youngsters stream into the streets, to the social organizations and all the places of amusement.

On Shabbos in the summertime, after a nap, the boys go to cheder to study Pirke Oves^[44]. Or the teachers visit the well-to-do households, to question the children and show their elders how far the children have progressed… They are not always successful because the

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children get confused and can't answer the questions. The teacher winks, pokes with his elbow, nudges with his foot, gives signals with his finger and whispers suggestions. It sometimes happens, however, that even this doesn't help and the teacher is aggravated and embarrassed. It once happened, regarding the Hebrew words “khotsi sheli” (meaning “my half”) that the teacher pointed with one hand to half of the second hand, moving back and forth and repeating “khotsi…khotsi…” The boy happily cried out, “I know, Teacher!…It's a little fiddle!”

It is Shabbos in the shtetl. Even goyim know this. No peasant cart would show up in town today. Even the country peasant knows the Jewish holidays well. He knows when to bring chickens for kapores^[45], green branches for Succos, eggs, horseradish and parsley for Pesach, greenery and dairy products for Shavuos, etc. Christian townsfolk come to their Jewish acquaintances to enjoy a piece of Jewish-style fish with challah and a drink of vodka. Poor goyim come to light fires in the kitchen, to warm up the Shabbos glasses of tea. They do not put payment directly into his hand, he just knows to lift up a corner of the tablecloth and take what has been prepared for him to compensate him for his effort.

And who can forget the Shabbos evenings, at twilight, just before Havdole? Before the holy Shabbos goes out and a difficult, grey week comes in? So much melancholy and longing filled those hours!

Men wash their hands in order to eat a morsel of challah, fulfilling the obligation of having a third ritual meal on Shabbos. And afterwards, they take some of the Shabbos leftovers with them, so that they could finish their meal together in the prayer house or shtibl. There they sit in the dimming light around a long table, and they sing to the Shabbos Queen. They want to hold onto Shabbos as long as possible. But the shames turns on the light and brings in the week. The Jews heave a sigh and get up from the table.

Evening prayers.
The wives remain at home and, in the dimming light, say “God of Abraham”^[46], praying for a healthy week, a lucky week, a profitable week for themselves and for all Israel.

For many Jews, this still isn't the end of Shabbos. They usher out the Shabbos Queen with a meal of sorrel borsht, fish and meat, which their industrious wives have set aside from the daytime meal. They dance and they sing through Veyitn Lekho.^[47]

And the young people finish Shabbos with a bit of carousing, going to see a film or a play, strolling around or enjoying other entertainments.

Notes:

23. Gemara is Talmud and Tosefos are medieval commentaries on the Talmud Return
24. esn teg literally: eating “days” – the practice of eating meals at different homes on different days Return
25. secular Hebrew language newspapers Return
26. herem: the strictest form of censure by rabbis on Jewish wrongdoers, i.e. the total exclusion of a person from the Jewish community. Return
27. a right-wing secular Zionist organization Return
28. Jewish Labor Bund, Jewish socialist party founded in 1897, very influential in Russia and particularly in Poland until World War II Return
29. members of the Yidishe Folkspartay – the Jewish People's Party, founded after the 1905 pogroms in the Russian Empire and active in Poland in the 1920s and 1930s Return
30. Judenstaat (“The State of the Jews”) German title of an important Zionist pamphlet written by Theodor Herzl in 1896. Return
31. Lagboymer – Hebrew Lag BaOmer, spring holiday on the 33^rd day after Passover, celebrated with excursions to the countryside. Return
32. Polish Wole (plural of singular Wola, “settlement”) is the equivalent of Yiddish Voles in the text. In fact, there are no Wole in the Polish map of the region, but it's likely that the author used Voles to refer to a group of hamlets beyond the river to the northwest of the town. Return
33. A Yiddish song by Avrom Reyzen, containing the monologue of an impoverished yeshivah student. The title is a Talmudic phrase in Aramaic. Return
34. shkotsim and shikses – non-Jews, but can be used disparagingly to refer to Jews Return
35. Polish Dęby [oaks] is the equivalent of Yiddish Dembes in the text. In fact, there are no Dęby in the Polish map of the region, but Dembes was the Yiddish way to refer to a wooded area to the south of the town. Return
36. The rational approach to Judaism that began at the end of the 18th century Return
37. In Hebrew, “the association”. It was the name of the Socialist-Zionist party. Return
38. eyer-kikhl – a twisted egg biscuit or cookie party. Return
39. “Swiss Valley” is both a play on Avremtshe Shvaytser's last name – Shvaytser means “Swiss” – and a reference to public garden by that name (in Polish, Dolina Szwajcarska) in Warsaw where shows and entertainment took place. Return
40. Castle Garden was the main immigration center of NYC before Ellis Island; it was situated on the southern tip of Manhattan and processed immigrants from 1855 to 1890. Return
41. This is probably Ivan Fëdorovič Paskevič (1782-1856), a military officer and administrator in the Russian government who suppressed the Polish insurrection of 1830-31. Return
42. Shalom Aleichem is the title and first words of a four-stanza hymn sung at the beginning of the Friday night Sabbath meal. Return
43. Wire border around a town to indicate its classification as a private area, which allows the carrying of objects on the Sabbath. Return
44. A section of the Mishnah containing ethical teachings. Return
45. An atonement ceremony performed the day before Yom Kippur. Return
46. A collection of biblical verses recited in Yiddish by women on Saturday night to usher in the new week with blessings and good fortune. Return
47. A section of scriptural verses of blessing added on Saturday nights to the regular evening liturgy. Return

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