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Introduction

Source of Materials:

This demographic review presents the composition and some of the socio-economic characteristics of the Jewish population of Drohobycz and the surrounding rural areas but without Boryslaw and its surrounding areas (such as Tustanowice and Schodnica). Although Boryslaw was administratively part of the Drohobycz sub-district, as far the Jewish community organization is concerned it became independent as of 1935 with separate community institutions. This review is based mainly on the Drohobycz Jewish community office's index cards. A small portion of the review is dedicated to the town of Boryslaw. In the office of births, marriages, deaths and divorces in Boryslaw we were able to copy some very interesting details. For instance for deaths: age at death and cause of death. For marriages: ages of the bride and groom and the groom's occupation. In Drohobycz we were able to collect data only about marriages but not about births and deaths.

The information copied from the index cards was as follows:

1. For the mother and father – birth year, place of birth or origin, occupation, and education level;
2. For each child – birth year, sex, occupation, education level, marital status, and place of residence in the case the child did not live at home.

The index cards included also children living outside the home – children living outside of Drohobycz, but also those who married and did live in Drohobycz and were registered separately. This is due to the fact that the cards were indexed by family association. Therefore, when we processed the data statistically on the Drohobycz population we had to ignore the children living outside the home. However for other purposes such as number of children per mother, father's and son's occupation and education we included “all the children”.

The information was copied in the years 1934 – 1936. At the time I was a Ph.D. student at the Rome (Italy) University. My research was about the demographics of a number of Jewish communities in Poland. In the summer of 1934 I performed a detailed demographic study in the small town of Halicz. During summer vacations in 1935 – 1936 I collected demographic materials from Drohobycz, Boryslaw and the surrounding areas (I was born in the small village of Stebnyk near Drohobycz) as well as some larger cities such as Lvov, Krakow and Warsaw. Some of the materials were collected by people I hired. The entire project was financed by my late father who was proud that information about Drohobycz, Boryslaw and the surrounding area would be discussed and studied in far-away Rome.

The materials were transferred to the Italian committee for population research, where I processed the data.

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In 1939 I left Italy and immigrated to Israel. At the time, Italy was already under the Nazi influence and it was too risky to take this material with me. All this information excluding “cause of death” remained with an Italian Christian friend of mine. He safe-guarded it all until I came to visit him in August 1954.

In normal times these materials would not amount to much. Statistical information from community index cards is not considered accurate or reliable because the updates were normally late in coming and sometimes non-existent. However, because so much Jewish communities' information was lost in the Holocaust, this type of material is an important demographic and socio-economic source. To the best of my knowledge this is the only case where an entire Jewish community's in Poland index was preserved and the information presented in a Yizkor Book.

It is a well-known fact that such index cards were not up-to-date. Considering the size of the Jewish population in Drohobycz (about 13,000) and the geographical spread of the surrounding villages it is unrealistic to expect that these cards would have been updated on a regular basis. There was a lack of an orderly updating process, as well as the lack of municipal and state resources. Although originally there was enthusiasm in many of the Jewish community offices to organize an index, no thought was given to the future operations of such an index.

We made some comparisons to validate the quality of the numbers. Based on the Polish government census of 1931, 12,931 Jews lived in the city of Drohobycz and 3,961 lived in the surrounding rural areas (16,892 combined). Based on our data the numbers were: 13,640 in Drohobycz and 2,148 in the surrounding areas (15,788 combined). These numbers mean that the community index cards contained more people than the census. One explanation is that the index continued to be updated even after the census was conducted in 1931. We found that the surrounding areas indices were incomplete and in certain cases whole villages were missing. A list of villages in the Drohobycz sub-district^[2] at the end of this article details the numbers of Jews and is derived from the 1921 census. For the city of Drohobycz itself, we used the numbers from the 1931 census. For comparison purposes we enclosed in parentheses the numbers from the index cards that we do have for the small villages. In some places our numbers are different than those from the list. This is reasonable considering the time that elapsed between 1921 and the indices dates. We are missing numbers for some of the rural areas leading us to the conclusion that those indices were much less up-to-date than those of the city of Drohobycz most likely due to the wide areas covered. Some of these villages belonged administratively to the Boryslaw Jewish community (such as Schodnica and Tustanowice), and therefore do not need to be included in our study.

We also encountered the issue of determining the time frame for the data. After consideration we determined that the Drohobycz data is updated up to and including 1932 whereas the rural data is updated only up to 1924. In spite of these inconsistencies we decided to merge the two and in most cases the analysis was done for both Drohobycz and the surrounding areas.

Before World War One during the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Drohobycz county of Galicia included the towns of Drohobycz and Boryslaw and about 90 villages and rural localities (see table 22 at the end of this article). Between the two wars, Drohobycz was part of the Lvov province of Poland. The county of Drohobycz was one of the 27 counties of the province and consisted of 5% of the county's area and 7% of the population (0.4% of Poland's area and 0.3% of its population).

The county and specifically the towns of Drohobycz and Boryslaw were known as industrial centers and their rich deposits of petroleum and ozokerite (earth wax) and salt. 53% of the county's economy was agriculture and 47% was based on mining, industry and services. In comparison, the Lvov county (excluding the town of Lvov), 70% of the economy was agriculture.

Population wise, the majority - 56% were Ruthenians – Ukrainians, 27% Polish and 15% Jewish (based on the 1931 census, Jews were 14.8%). The rest were Russians, Germans, etc. The Ruthenians were the majority 77% in the rural areas. In the city of Drohobycz, the population composition was: 40% Jews, 33% Poles and 25% Ruthenians. In the city of Boryslaw, the Poles were 47%, the Jews 29% and the Ruthenians were 23%.

This population composition was a source of troubles for the Jews in the 1930. Using Anti –Semitism, the Poles tried to blur the political differences between them and the Ukrainian national movement.

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The infamous agreement between the Polish government and the Ukrainian leadership caused venomous anti- Jewish propaganda and economical-boycott. The Jewish situation was dire, especially in the rural areas where the Ruthenians were the majority. Jewish fields and homes were set on fire, thus forcing the smaller communities to liquidate their businesses and move away from the villages. Thus, the Ruthenians achieved their goal of “Jewish free villages”.

The growth of the Jewish Population in Drohobycz

The data about the Jewish population in Drohobycz is derived from various sources: authors, censuses, and various estimates. As can be expected, there are many inconsistencies between these various sources and it is difficult to determine their reliability. Even the censuses cannot be completely reliable as the population (both Jewish and non-Jewish) was reluctant to participate due to the fact that the data was usually used as means for tax collection.

Based on table #1 below we can see that in 1663 there were 15 houses on the Jewish street (Na Łanie) and after 150 years (based on the 1812 census) Drohobycz had 636 families (2492 persons). In 1880 there were 9181 Jewish persons. However 10 years later, in 1890 the number dropped to 8708 Jews. Possibly there were fluctuations in the Jewish population, but it is also possible that the differences are a result of a lack of definition as to which areas were included in the censuses. It seems as the greatest population growth took place between 1900 and 1910. However, it is uncertain since it is unknown which surrounding communities were included, where the largest one was Boryslaw.

Year	Town of Drohobycz	Town of Boryslaw	Surrounding Areas	Total Number in Drohobycz Sub-District	Source of Data
1663	15 houses[3] = 75 persons				Gelber, pg.12
1812	2,492				Gelber, pg. 27
1869	8,055				Gelber, pg. 32
1876	9,000				Gelber, pg. 33
1880	9,181 (50.4%)			21,963	Gelber, pg. 35
1890	8,708 (48.0%)			23,819	Gelber, pg. 35
1900	8,603 (44.7%)	1,240		22,001	Gelber, pg. 35 and Gruiński
1910	15,315 (44.2%)			29,600 (17.2%)	Krzyanowski,Kumaniecki
1921	11,833 (45.0%)	7,170 (44.5%)	7,308	26,311[4] (16.1%)	1921 Census
1931	12,931 (40.1%)	11,996 (29.0%)	3,961	28,888 (14.8%)	1931 census

The interesting phenomenon discussed by many statisticians is the decline of the relative percentage of Jews in the general population. In 1880, the percentage of Jews in the town of Drohobycz was 50.4% and in 1931 it dropped to 40.1%. In the entire county, the Jews were 17.2% in 1910 and only 14.8% in 1931. The greatest decline in both the town of Drohobycz and the entire county was between the years 1921 and 1931. There is no data after 1931, but based on the knowledge of birth rate decline it is reasonable to assume that this trend continued throughout the 1930's.

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The Migration from Drohobycz

The index cards had sometimes notes that may shed some light on the migration phenomenon. If one of the parents was born outside of Drohobycz, his or her place of birth was indicated. If children lived outside of Drohobycz, their new location was indicated by their names.

This data is incomplete and unreliable due to the following: For the first situation when the parents were born outside of Drohobycz, this information was given only for those who were still alive. Therefore, the numbers are lacking for the migration to Drohobycz. For the second situation for migration from Drohobycz, the numbers are even much less accurate. This is because the data contains only sons and daughters who still had parents in Drohobycz. Numbers for those who had no longer parents in town or when entire families moved is not provided. In spite of these limitations, the data can shed some light on the migration from Drohobycz.

Number of Children	Both Parents	Just the Father	Just the Mother
0	17	162	162
1	20	65	40
2	24	63	72
3	7	44	53
4	12	4	35
5	4	20	25
6	6	10	12
7	1	9	6
8+	2	4	7
Total	93	417	412

From table number 2 it looks that the number of families where both parents were born outside of Drohobycz was rather low: only 93 families out of 4857 (including singles) in Drohobycz and the surroundings (based on index cards data) - less than 2%. Mostly only one of the parents was born outside of Drohobycz (417 fathers and 412 mothers). It can be deduced that most of the migration to Drohobycz was due to marriages^[5] and not due to economical reasons. To support this assumption, we can see that the number of mothers and fathers that were born outside of Drohobycz is almost identical. Although we do not have numbers for those who left Drohobycz due to marriages, it is reasonable to assume that this tendency (of marrying spouses outside of town of residence) worked both ways. The number of families where both parents were born outside of Drohobycz was 93 amounting to 222 persons.

In processing this data we zeroed in on two factors:

1. The size of the family and the number of children (both sons and daughters) migrating out of Drohobycz;
2. Where did the children migrate to?

Most of the children who left Drohobycz were mainly from large families. In families with two children, less than 2% of children left – 14 children out of 796 families. In families with five children the number was higher – about 23% (115 out of 558 families). Among larger families of 8 or more children, greater number left town about 43% (53 out of 123). Similarly, with larger families, greater number of children left home.

Most of those leaving Drohobycz moved to other towns and cities in Poland (Table number 4) – about 59% (603 out of 1013), and only 40% moved to other countries. The move to other towns was probably due to marriages. It is interesting to note that the percent among those migrating to other towns 50.4% were men and among those migrating to other countries 65% were men.

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Size of Family	Number of Children leaving Total 1 2 3 4 5 6+ 554 284 163 56 32 12 7 14 14 38 35 3 90 46 37 7 115 69 35 10 1 109 55 39 10 3 2 81 30 23 13 10 4 1 53 14 16 11 8 2 2 35 14 7 2 9 2 1 19 7 3 3 1 2 3	Rate of migration per 100 families	Total Number of Children Migrating	Average Number of Children Migrating per Family
Total		1.5	1,013	1.8
2		(2.0)	(14)	(1)
3		4.9	41	1.1
4		11.5	141	1.6
5		23.4	173	1.5
6		29.0	185	1.7
7		37.0	181	2.2
8		43.1	133	2.5
9		58.4	88	2.5
10+		(40.4)	57	3.0

Country	Males	Females	Total
Total	594	419	1,013
Other Towns in Poland	328	275	593
Soviet Union	5		5
Romania	2		2
Yugoslavia	2	1	3
Germany	35	12	47
Austria	54	49	103
Czechoslovakia	21	4	25
Hungary	5	2	7
Switzerland	2	1	3
Belgium	3		3
The Netherlands	2		2
France	17	2	19
United Kingdom	2	1	3
Finland	2		2
Italy	2		2
United States	92	43	135
Brazil	1	1	2
Argentina	8	3	1
Israel	15	7	22
Other Countries	1	1	2

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	Absolute Numbers						Percentages
Age	Town of Drohobycz 1932			Rural Areas 1924			Drohobycz	Rural	Drohobycz and Boryslaw	Lvov District	Poland Jews
	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
0-4	238	205	443	96	100	196	3.60	9.30	6.40	8.40	9.60
5-9	554	552	1,106	53	64	117	9.00	5.60	9.70	11.00	11.60
10-14	440	380	820	125	85	210	6.70	10.00	13.10	7.40	8.40
15-19	493	563	1,056	127	134	261	8.60	12.40	12.70	8.70	9.70
20-24	655	759	1,414	103	136	239	11.60	11.40	10.80	10.80	10.60
25-29	619	769	1,388	96	101	197	11.30	9.40	7.90	9.50	9.30
30-34	528	630	1,158	65	60	125	9.40	5.90	12.60	7.90	7.40
35-39	401	475	876	62	52	114	7.20	5.40	11.90	6.60	6.50
40-44	390	423	813	46	63	109	6.60	5.20		5.70	5.50
45-49	313	385	698	49	57	106	5.70	5.00	8.20	5.00	4.80
50-54	361	382	743	54	70			6.10	5.90	4.90	4.30
55-59	300	313	613	51	30	81	5.00	3.80	6.70	4.20	3.70
60-64	216	203	419	68	47	115	3.40	5.50		3.70	3.30
65+	336	376	712	58	52	110	5.80	5.20		6.10	5.30
Not Specified	679	702	1,381	35	9	44
Total	6,523	7,117	13,640	1,088	1,060	2,148	100.00	100.00	100.00	99.90	100.00

The main countries of migration were: United States (145), Austria (103), Germany (47), Czechoslovakia (25), and Eretz Israel (22).

This data shows a much lower number of those immigrating to Eretz Israel as compared to data from other sources. It is possible that the differences are due to the fact that those immigrating to Israel did not leave parents behind in Drohobycz, or perhaps the registration was lacking and incomplete or perhaps both.

The First World War had a major impact on the age distribution of the Jewish population as is evident from the various age groups (table number 5). In the Drohobycz rural areas the lowest percentage of the entire population (5.6%) was for the 5 – 9 years olds (those born between 1915 and 1919). The percent for children aged 10 – 14 (10%) and youth aged 15 – 19 (12.7%) are much higher. Similar age distribution results can be seen for Drohobycz, Boryslaw and the surrounding areas from the 1921 census data. The percent of children aged 0 – 4 (born 1916 – 1921) and to a certain extent age group 5 – 9 (born 1911 – 1915) was lower than the age groups of 10 – 14 (born 1906 – 1910) and 15 – 19 (born 1901 – 1905). The effect of the war is also true for the Jews of Drohobycz. The lowest percentages of the population can be seen for the 10-14 (born 1918 – 1922) and 15 – 19 (born 1913 – 1917) age groups. The same can be seen for the Lvov district as well as the entire Jewish population in Poland in 1931.

On the other hand, following the war, we can see an increase in the birth rate. In Drohobycz, ages 5 – 9 (those born 1923 – 1927) (9.4%) and ages 0 -4 (1923 – 1927) (9.3%) in the surrounding areas. However, this was a short lived period. We can see that in the late 1920's there is decrease in the birth rate. In 1931, the percent of children in the age group of 0 – 4 was only 3.6%, which is the lowest in the population. Although it is possible that the registration of births was incomplete, this lower number is definitely a result of lower birth rate.

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In the Lvov district (excluding the city of Lvov), the number of children in the 0 – 4 age group was 8.7% as compared to 11.3% in the 5 – 9 age group. These numbers correspond to the trend in the Jewish Polish population as a whole – 9.6% for ages 0 – 4 as compared to 11.6% for ages 5 – 9.

The numbers of ages 20 – 65 was higher in Drohobycz (66.3%) as compared to the Lvov district (58.3%) and 55.4% in the entire Jewish Polish population. This reflects probably the internal migration of people to the industrial city of Lvov. The percent of people age 65 and older is low in Drohobycz (5.8%), the Lvov district (6.9%) and Poland as a whole (5.3%). These numbers point to the fact that life expectancy was not high among Poland's Jews.

The age distributions of men and women over the age of 15 (table 6) by marital status are confirming some of the known facts about the marriage traditions of the Jewish population.

Age	Drohobycz and Surrounding Areas					Lvov District (excluding Lvov)
	Single	Married	Widower	Divorced	Total	Single	Married	Widower	Divorced	Total
Total ages 15 and up	50.2	47.4	2.3	0.1	100.0	38.7	56.3	4.7	0.3	100.0
15 – 19	100.0				100.0	99.9	0.1			100.0
20 – 24	96.7	3.3			100.0	96.0	3.9		0.1	100.0
25 – 29	78.4	21.2	0.3	0.1	100.0	68.3	31.2	0.3	0.2	100.0
30 – 34	36.7	62.9	0.4		100.0	27.8	71.5	0.4	0.3	100.0
35 – 39	17.0	82.0	0.8	0.2	100.0	9.4	89.3	0.8	0.5	100.0
40 – 44	11.8	87.5	0.7		100.0	4.3	94.0	1.3	0.4	100.0
45 – 49	7.2	90.6	1.9	0.3	100.0	2.3	95.0	2.3	0.4	100.0
50 – 54	3.7	94.4	1.7	0.2	100.0	1.6	93.2	4.7	0.5	100.0
55 – 59	2.6	91.5	5.7	0.2	100.0	1.1	90.6	8.1	0.2	100.0
60-64	3.6	88.5	7.6	0.3	100.0	0.7	85.2	13.8	0.3	100.0
65 +	3.7	76.2	19.8	0.3	100.0	0.6	64.4	9.5	25.5	100.0

Age	Drohobycz and Surrounding Areas					Lvov District (excluding Lvov)
	Single	Married	Widower	Divorced	Total	Single	Married	Widower	Divorced	Total
Total ages 15 and up	47.6	43.4	8.7	.3	100.0	36.5	50.6	12.1	0.8	100.0
15 – 19	99.2	0.8			100.0	99.4	0.6			100.0
20 – 24	90.6	9.1	0.3		100.0	89.7	10.1	0.1	0.1	100.0
25 – 29	62.5	36.9	0.4	0.2	100.0	55.6	43.3	0.4	0.7	100.0
30 – 34	29.9	67.3	2.3	0.5	100.0	18.7	78.1	1.8	1.4	100.0
35 – 39	16.8	80.0	2.5	0.7	100.0	7.1	86.6	4.2	2.1	100.0
40 – 44	8.6	83.0	6.6	1.8	100.0	3.6	85.2	9.4	1.8	100.0
45 – 49	6.3	78.9	13.6	1.4	100.0	1.5	82.3	15.2	1.0	100.0
50 – 54	3.7	79.4	16.0	0.9	100.0	1.5	75.8	21.6	1.1	100.0
55 – 59	3.4	68.9	27.4	0.3	100.0	1.0	69.7	28.8	0.5	100.0
60-64	2.9	64.0	32.6	0.8	100.0	0.8	60.6	38.1	0.5	100.0
65 +	2.6	41.2	55.1	1.1	100.0	0.8	39.7	59.2	0.3	100.0

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The number of singles among both men and women over the age of 50 was very low (less than 4%) meaning that marriage was the rule rather than the exception. Comparing the numbers of singles (both men and women) among the Jews of Drohobycz with the trends in the Lvov district (excluding Lvov) show different patterns. The data from the 1931 census shows that the numbers of singles in Drohobycz was lower than in the Lvov district. The conclusion from this comparison is that people tended to get married later in life in Drohobycz than in the Lvov district.

The low number of widows and widowers in Drohobycz probably stems from the fact that some of these declared themselves single or perhaps the update of data was not complete. Also the numbers for divorces seems very low both in Drohobycz and in the Lvov district. It is possible that some of those who reported to be singles were actually widows, widowers and divorced.

Differences based on husband's age

In most cases the husband was older than the wife in both Drohobycz and the surrounding areas (table 7). On average, the husband was 4 – 6 older than the wife. It is interesting to note that the number of husbands younger than their wives is not negligible especially in the younger ages. In the age group of 25 – 29, 34% of the husbands were younger, 15% were of the same age and only 51% were older than their wives. In older age groups such as 60-69 only 8% of the husbands were younger, 13% of the same age and 79% were older than their wives. Similarly, the age difference between the spouses is greater in the older age group. For the age group of 20 – 25 the average age difference was 1.5 years, whereas for the age group of 60 – 69 the average difference was 5.9 years. The reason is that older men tended to marry younger women.

Husband's Age	Husband younger than wife - by years						Both of the same age	Husband older than wife - by years								Average age differences
	1	2	3	4	5+	Total		1	2	3	4	5-9	10-14	15+	Total	Younger by years	Older by years	Total years
20-24	(4.0)	(16.0)	(8.0)	(4.0)	(12.0)	(44.0)	(8.0)	(24.0)	(8.0)	(4.0)	(12.0)				(48.0)	-(2.1)	(2.4)	(0.2)
25-29	11.8	9.2	3.4	2.6	7.2	34.2	14.5	7.9	13.8	12.5	3.3	13.2		0.6	51.3	-1.7	3.8	1.5
30-34	4.9	4.1	3.2	3.2	4.9	20.3	13.5	11.3	11.3	9.2	11.2	21.6	1.6		66.2	-1.9	4.3	2.6
35-39	3.7	4	2.7	1.3	2.9	14.6	11.2	5.9	8.3	9.3	9.6	32.8	8.3		74.2	-2.1	5.7	4.1
40-49	3.6	3.4	1.7	1.3	3.1	13.1	9.4	7.2	10.2	7.7	7.8	29.4	13.4	1.8	77.5	-2	6.3	4.9
50-59	2.1	2.4	0.6	1.1	2.6	8.8	10.8	5.5	10.7	6.5	8.9	29.1	13.5	6.2	80.4	-4.1	7	5.4
60-69	2.3	2.3	0.8	0.8	1.5	7.7	12.7	5.8	6.8	9.6	6	26.7	12.9	11.8	79.5	-5.5	7.7	5.9
70+	1.5	0.7		0.7	2.2	5.1	8.8	2.2	11	8	5.1	29.9	17.5	12.4	86.1	-1.7	8.3	5.9
Total	3.5	3.4	1.7	1.5	3.2	13.3	11.2	6.9	9.9	8.3	8.3	27.3	10.3	4.3	75.5	-3.1	6.4	4.6

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For men aged 60 – 69 12.9% were 10 – 14 years older than their wives and 11.8% were older by 15+ years. Obviously among those aged 20 -24 it is impossible to find 15+ age differences.

After World War One, the number of marriages where the husband was younger than the wife increased and the age differences between husband and wife decreased.

In the registration index cards in Drohobycz we found data about the ages of bride and groom at the time of marriage or the ages of husbands and wives if the registration took place years after the actual marriage. In many cases the registration took place many years after the actual marriage or was not registered at all. Because of this, it is only possible to calculate the age differences and not the ages when the actual marriage took place.

Year of Registration	Husband younger than wife - by years						Both of the same age	Husband older than wife - by years								Average age differences
	1	2	3	4	5+	Total		1	2	3	4	5-9	10-14	15+	Total	Younger by years	Older by years	Total years
Drohobycz
Until 1900	4.7	3.5	3.1	1.6	1.7	14.7	9.5	11.6	13.1	8.9	8.4	20.2	9.4	4.2	75.8	3.0	5.2	3.7
1901- 1918	5.7	4	2.8	2.2	4.5	19.2	8.2	9.8	10.2	8.9	5.9	26.9	7.3	3.6	72.6	2.9	5.4	3.5
1919-1935	5.7	4.2	4.5	2.6	5.6	22.6	6.4	8.7	9.8	7.5	8.6	25.9	7.5	3.0	71.0	2.7	5.5	3.2
Boryslaw
Until 1918	3.3	3.1	1.4	1.6	2.7	12.1	8.9	10.0	7.7	10.9	8.6	31.6	8.4	1.7	78.9	2.7	5.7	4.3
1919-1935	6.2	4.8	3.1	3.1	4.5	21.7	7.0	1.8	6.9	10.9	8.6	27.4	7.8	7.8	71.3	2.9	5.6	3.4

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Age Differences Between Husband and Wife by Husband's Occupation

It is interesting to examine the age differences between husbands and wives based on the husband's occupation which reflect the socio-economic status to a certain extent.

Husband's Occupation	Husband Younger Than Wife by Years				Both of the Same Age	Husband Older Than Wife by Years					Average Differences			Total Families
	Up to Two (2) Years	2-4	5+	Total for Younger Husband		Up to Two (2) Years	2-4	5-9	10 +	Total for Older Husband	Younger Husbands -Years	Older Husbands + Years	Toal for Older Husbands + Years
All Occupations	6.8	3.2	3.2	13.2	11.3	16.7	16.5	38.0	4.3	75.5	3.1	6.4	4.6	100.0
Professional & Technical	5.7	3.5	2.2	11.4	8.6	14.0	14.0	48.1	3.9	80.0	2.9	7.2	5.6	100.0
Managers	3.7	2.9	4.4	11.0	10.3	11.8	14.0	49.2	3.7	78.7	4.1	7.0	5.2	100.0
Clerks	6.7	2.4	1.2	10.3	9.2	17.5	14.4	46.6	2.0	80.5	2.4	6.4	5.1	100.0
Merchants	6.2	3.1	3.1	12.4	11.8	18.6	17.1	36.9	3.2	75.8	3.1	5.9	4.3	100.0
Industry & Crafts	6.9	3.1	3.3	13.3	13.5	16.7	15.2	34.9	6.4	73.2	2.9	6.6	4.7	100.0
Unskilled Labor	8.3	4.3	4.3	16.9	9.7	16.9	20.9	32.3	3.3	73.4	3.2	6.0	4.0	100.0
Services	7.1	5.6	1.4	14.1	9.9	8.4	25.3	39.5	2.8	76.0	1.9	6.6	5.0	100.0
Unemployed	(2.0)	(2.0)		(4.0)	-15.6	(21.6)	(9.8)	(39.2)	(9.8)	(80.4)	1.0	7.2	6.2	100.0
Not Stated	11.8	2.8	6.1	20.7	10.7	15.4	17.1	30.4	5.7	68.6	3.3	6.4	3.9	100.0

1. Family Size

The two types of data we processed are very different but together they give a very interesting demographic picture. The number of children shows the economic composition of the family per a specific household. We removed all the children with the notations of “outside the home” (those living abroad or in another town) and all the married children (those appear separately in the index cards) from the families lists. By doing so we separated the multi-generations families into one generation. As an example, a family consisting of parents, their married children and their children were divided into two family units.^[8] Therefore, when evaluating the family size data, this has to be taken into account with the understanding that it is lacking.

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Comparing the family size in Drohobycz with that of the Lvov district and Israel in 1957^[9] we can see a major difference for the number of single persons. 23.3% in Drohobycz, 7.4% in Lvov and 9.9% in Israel. See table 10. However, if we compare families with more than one person, we can see that this number is not different between Drohobycz (4.1) as compared to the Jewish population in Israel (4.0) of European and Asian-African descent. The conclusion is that if we did not separate the Drohobycz families (as explained above), we would get much higher numbers for the size of families in Drohobycz.

Number of Persons in Family	Drohobycz and Surrounding Areas						Lvov District	Israel 1957
	Absolute Figures			Percentages			Percentages
	Males	Females	Both	Males	Females	Both
All families	3,598	1,259	4,857	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
1	479	662	1,141	13.3	52.6	23.3	7.4	9.9
2	703	171	874	19.6	13.6	18.0	14.2	18.9
3	688	156	844	19.2	19.4	17.4	16.2	21.2
4	713	113	826	20.0	8.8	17.1	19.4	23.5
5	454	86	540	12.6	7.0	11.1	17.0	12.7
6	278	40	318	7.8	3.2	6.6	11.7	5.8
7	146	17	163	4.0	1.4	3.4	7.0	3.1
8	78	10	88	2.9	0.8	1.8	3.8	2.4
9	29	3	32	0.8	0.2	0.7	1.9	1.3
10+	30	1	31	0.8		0.6	1.4	1.2
Average Including Single (1) Person Families	3.6	2.3	3.3				4.3	3.7
Average not Including Single (1) Person Families	4.2	3.7	4.1				4.6	4.0

The number of women as head of household was especially large. Out of 4,857 families about 25% (1,259) were headed by women. If we take into consideration that about 600 were widows or divorcees, then about 600 head of household women were single. Some lived alone and others lived with their brothers and sisters.

A completely different set of data was gleaned from the family index cards and it relates to the number of living children by the mother's age (See table 11). We need to be very careful when drawing conclusion and making comparisons from these numbers.

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Mother's Age	No Children	1	2	3	4	5	6+	All Families	Average Including Families without Children	Average Excluding Children
All women age 15+	15.4	19.2	23.8	15.6	10.5	6.9	8.6	100.0	2.5	3.0
15-19	66.7	33.3						100.0	0.3	1.0
20-24	53.1	34.9	10.5	1.5				100.0	0.6	1.3
25-29	34.1	38.2	21.2	5.3	0.4	0.8		100.0	1.0	1.5
30-34	19.6	28.6	33.2	11.4	5.6	0.8	0.8	100.0	1.6	2.0
35-39	15.0	23.0	28.8	18.7	8.2	4.0	2.3	100.0	2.1	2.4
40-44	11.7	14.4	27.3	19.3	11.7	6.7	8.9	100.0	2.7	3.1
45-49	6.7	12.7	23.1	21.3	14.9	9.0	12.3	100.0	3.1	3.4
50-54	9.0	7.0	17.3	18.0	18.4	13.8	16.5	100.0	3.5	3.9
55-56	6.3	8.3	16.7	17.7	16.7	15.0	19.3	100.0	3.7	4.0
65+	4.6	8.3	16.7	15.7	16.7	13.9	24.1	100.0	3.9	4.1

Two important conclusions from the numbers in Table 11:

The number of childless women age 45 and older is relatively low ranging between 4.6% and 9%. Considering the fact that these numbers do not include deceased children we can probably conclude that the number of women who could not give birth was very low.

The second conclusion is the relatively high number of children for the pre-world war one generation. The average number of children for women 50 and older was 3.5. This refers of course to the married women. But even if we take into consideration the single women, widows and divorcees we will find the number of children per woman was pretty consistent. The number of single women in this age group was very low. The number of unmarried women for this age group (widows and divorcees) was about 30% of all women. The number of living children for this group was 2.2 children per woman. Therefore the number of living children per woman was close to 3.2.

The number of children per woman was much lower for the younger generation, those that were married after the war. For women in the age group of 40-49 the average number of children was 2.9. With the widows and divorcees that number was 2.7.

Table 12 shows us the differences in the number of children based on the various socio-economic status of the family. For a correct comparison we included only families where the mother was 45 years old or older. The figures do not show major differences between the various groups except for the two extremes: White collar workers (3.0) and Transportation workers (4.6).

It is important to note that these numbers refers mostly to the ages group of pre-world war one.

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Father's Occupation	No Children	1	2	3	4	5	6+	All Families	Average including Childless Families	Average Excluding Childless Families
All Occupations	8.2	9.4	16.7	19.7	16.8	12.8	16.4	100.0	3.5	3.8
Professionals, Technical, Managerial and Clerical	7.9	15.0	23.4	19.0	13.7	10.0	11.0	100.0	3.0	3.3
Merchants and Brokers	8.5	16.8	18.5	18.1	12.2	6.6	17.4	100.0	3.5	3.8
Crafts and Industry	5.1	6.2	10.8	27.3	21.6	12.5	16.5	100.0	3.7	3.9
Costruction and Unskilled labor	7.4	9.0	16.4	18.0	15.6	17.2	16.4	100.0	3.5	3.8
Transportaion and Porters	3.2	6.2	15.6	15.6	15.6	15.6	28.2	100.0	4.6	4.7
Miscellanous and Undefined	11.0	8.4	15.6	18.2	14.8	13.5	18.5	100.0	3.5	3.9

Breadwinners' percentages

Here we are looking at people who were economically active. Therefore, all dependents, those on welfare, the very young and the very old, housewives and those who were receiving pension, rent, etc. were excluded. This does not mean that all those included were actually employed or active economically. It is likely that people indicated profession/occupation, but they were not in the workforce. Either they never worked in their profession or did not work for a long time. The modern definition of workforce is being actually employed, mostly employed or unemployed but looking for work. Therefore it stands to reason that the number of breadwinners as detailed in table 13 is higher than was the actual situation. On the other hand we did remove those that did not indicate a profession and we assumed they did not belong to the workforce. This assumption is based on the fact that many young people did not work and were actually dependent on their parents.

Although the definition for employment in Drohobycz was different than the “modern definition” (see above paragraph) data shows that there is not much difference between the male workforce in Drohobycz (75%) as compared to the Jewish male workforce in Israel (80%). There is however difference in the female work force in Drohobycz (11%) as compared to the female workforce in Israel (28%).

The numbers of the unemployed (37), those living from rent, pension, etc. (32) seem to be low and we suspect that some of them were included in the “undefined”.

In his article, Dr. Gelber discusses the occupations of Drohobycz Jews in the 19^th century and the period before world war one. The discussion encompasses the development of industry and crafts in town dominated by the mining of salt, wax and oil. The town was dominated not only by craftsmen such as tailors, shoemakers, carpenters, upholsterers and glaziers, but also by industry workers such as tinsmiths, welders, and coppersmiths in addition to non-skilled workers in the mines and oil industry. In time, the center of mining and industry moved to Boryslaw, the well-known oil town.

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Men
Age	All 15+	15-19	20-24	25-34	35-44	45-54	55-64	65+
In Workforce	75.2	24.5	62.5	79.0	91.0	91.4	89.4	70.0
Students	6.9	36.0	16.1	3.2
Dependents	1.2	3.2	1.2	0.8		0.1	2.5	2.4
Undefined	16.7	36.3	20.2	17.0	9.0	8.5	8.1	27.6
All Males	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Women
In Workforce	10.9	7.1	23.1	13.9	6.4	7.2	7.4	8.3
Students	6.7	41.6	13.9	1.1
Undefined	82.4	51.3	66.0	85.0	93.6	92.8	92.6	91.7
All Females	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0

In the 1930's, as gleaned from the index cards, the Jewish occupation picture in Drohobycz was different than the rest of the general population and even the Jewish population in Poland^[15] (Table 14). Out of more than 3,900 men (15 years old and older) whose occupation was indicated, 1,285 (33.2%) were in commerce: about 800 merchants, 220 peddlers, and about 200 agents and other commerce workers. 1,127 men in crafts and industry (29%), 722 were employed in tailoring and textiles, 270 mechanics, 243 carpenters and construction workers and 188 were in the food industry.

Out of the rest of the occupations 13.9% were in administration and clerical, 9.4% were professionals, and 9.9% were unskilled laborers, including porters.

If we divide all the workers into two general groups we find that “white collar” workers (including merchants) were 56% whereas crafts and industry, services and laborers were 44%. In Israel, the “white collar” workers are 39% whereas workers in the fields of industry, transportation, agriculture and services are 61%.

Table 15 describes the changes in occupations for Drohobycz and Boryslaw families based on the information of marriage registration. These numbers do not reflect the complete occupational picture because they were extracted for marrying men. As we will see below, the composition of occupations changes by age. It should be noted that the number of those who did not register is not insignificant. It is highly likely that those who did not register belonged to a lower socio-economic group. The numbers from the marriages registration in Drohobycz for the years 1919 – 1935 show that 20% of the grooms were in crafts and industry and 45% worked in commerce. The numbers extracted from the index cards showed 29% and 33% respectively. Therefore it is only possible to make a historical comparison based on age groups assuming that these will provide information about the occupations of all workers.

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Occupation	All Age 15+	Under 25	25-34	35-44	45-54	55-64	65+	Under 25	25-34	35-44	45-54	55-64	65+
	Numbers							Percentages
All Occupations	5,125	1,175	1,243	806	777	633	401	22.9	24.2	17.5	15.2	12.3	7.9
Professional & Technical	366	27	104	91	87	33	24	7.4	28.4	24.8	23.8	9.0	6.6
Managers & Business Owners	148	1	15	30	36	39	27	0.6	10.1	20.3	24.3	26.4	8.3
Clerical	391	28	127	110	64	44	18	7.2	32.4	28.1	16.4	11.3	4.6
Merchants & Agents	1,285	120	301	293	262	203	106	9.3	23.5	22.8	20.4	15.8	8.2
Crafts & Manufacturing	1,127	278	280	196	165	142	66	24.8	24.8	17.5	14.6	12.6	5.7
Unskilled Workers	366	35	121	69	64	74	23	9.1	31.3	17.9	16.6	19.2	5.9
Services	177	48	35	23	33	27	11	27.1	19.8	13.0	18.6	15.3	6.2

Occupation	Drohobycz and Surrounding Areas			Boryslaw
	Until 1900	1901-1918	1919-1935	Until 1918	1919-1935
All Occupations	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Professional & Technical	8.9	4.3	6.2	2.9	3.9
Managers & Business Owners	18.8	4.8	2.1	15.5	1.2
Clerical	10.9	9.0	15.2	4.4	16.2
Merchants & Agents	42.3	39.3	45.0	42.4	38.4
Crafts & Manufacturing	10.7	24.1	20.5	9.1	15.8
Unskilled Workers	2.2	15.1	8.4	12.2	22.3
Services	5.2	3.4	2.6	13.5	2.2

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The main differences that can be gleaned from these numbers show a decrease in the number of managers (including business owners) and increase in the number of clerical workers and those in the crafts and manufacturing sectors in both Drohobycz and Boryslaw. These numbers show the changes in the economic structure for the Jews in the two cities. With the growth of industry and the establishment of bigger factories, the numbers of managers and owners of smaller factories decreased and the numbers of clerical and professional workers in the growing industries increased. This is a well -established phenomenon for developing industries.

The age distribution of the various occupations depends on the ages of entering and exiting the work force for a particular occupation. There is a low number of managers and business owners for the lower ages (only 0.6% were managers for ages 25 and under). However, there was a tendency to continue in these occupations for many years (18.3% were aged 65+). On the other hand, those in crafts and industry entered the workforce at a relatively young age (24.8% were 25 years old or younger) and stopped working at an earlier age (only 5.7% were 65 years old or older).

These differences may reflect the changing occupation trends for the younger generations. Many of the younger people preferred more productive occupations.

Father's Occupation	All Children		Occupation Indicated	Students	Not Stated
	Numbers	Percentages
All Occupations	5,394	100.0	18.7	18.7	62.6
Professional and Technical	275	100.0	15.2	26.2	58.6
Managers and Business Owners	279	100.0	15.8	17.3	66.9
Clerical	292	100.0	18.3	35.9	45.8
Merchants and Agents	1,825	100.0	16.8	21.4	61.8
Crafts and Industry	1,378	100.0	17.8	15.2	67.0
Unskilled Workers	561	100.0	27.2	14.8	58.0
Services	134	100.0	23.9	19.4	56.7
Unemployed	174	100.0	13.3	9.7	77.0
Not stated	475	100.0	29.0	12.2	68.8

In working with this data, every father was counted for each of his children who were 15 years old or older. Among the children we included also those that left Drohobycz as the intent was to show the occupation trends for all children. Therefore the numbers refer to a whole generation. Fathers that were unemployed were also included and among the children we included students and those whose occupation was not specified. This number was especially high among girls and women.

From table 16 we can see that except for a few professions, there is a correlation between the father's and children's occupations. Two trends are clear from these numbers: The tendency to improve the socio-economic status in the younger generation as well as a tendency towards more “productive” occupations. Large number of the children leaned towards the professions and technical occupations (including large number of high school students). This is especially seen among the children of managers, clerks and merchants. Generally more men than women were in the technical and professional occupations.

The numbers for craftsmen and skilled industry workers were higher for the children than for their parents. About 40% of the children were in crafts and industry as compared to just over 20% for the parents. Among those that selected these occupations 55% were the children of craftsmen, 29% were children of merchants and 57% were children of unskilled workers/laborers. For this last group, selecting craftsmanship as an occupation meant improving their socio-economic standing.

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Educational Level by Age and Gender

Father's Occupation	Total	Professional and Technical	Managers and Business Owners	Clerical	Merchants and Agents	Crafts and Industry	Unskilled Workers	Services
All Occupations	100.0	9.1	0.9	12.2	27.9	39.2	7.3	3.4
Professional and Technical	(100.0)	(40.5)		(11.8)	(16.7)	(26.2)		(4.8)
Managers and Business Owners	100.0	15.9	9.1	20.5	43.1	9.1		2.3
Clerical	100.0	26.4	1.9	20.8	18.9	28.3	3.7
Merchants and Agents	100.0	10.1	1.0	11.8	43.3	28.5	4.6	0.7
Crafts and Industry	100.0	2.0		10.2	23.6	54.5	8.1	1.6
Unskilled Workers	100.0			6.6	8.5	56.6	18.4	9.9
Services	100.0	12.5			25.0	37.5	3.1	21.9
Unemployed	100.0	13.2		16.5	28.5	33.0	7.7	1.1

Table 18 shows the level of secular education among the Jewish population but does not reflect the actual educational level. In most European countries, there is no difference between the official education and the actual educational level as most of the population got their education through schools. However, this is not the case for the Jewish population in Eastern Europe before the World War One. Many received their Hebrew-Religious education and sometimes even the secular education (such as the local language (German or Polish depending on the area) and math in the “Talmud Torah” or privately. For people who indicated they cannot read or write, it does not mean they were illiterate. Most of them could read and write Yiddish and some had knowledge of the local language. The lists we copied from did not indicate if the lack of knowledge referred to the Polish or other language. Only when a person cannot read or write in any language at all he or she is considered illiterate.

The data here is very interesting because it gives an indication about the educational level by age, gender and occupation.

About 10% of men and about 13% of women were illiterate (Table 18). The numbers were higher for the older population, a phenomenon known around the world. Among those 65 and older, 44% of the men and 59% of the women were illiterate.

These percentages of illiteracy are lower than in the general population in the Drohobycz, Boryslaw and the surrounding area villages. Based on the 1931 census, the illiteracy rate among the men was 21% and over 33% for women. The illiteracy among the Jewish population in Drohobycz was similar to that found in the general population in Drohobycz and Boryslaw – 10% for men and 16% for women.

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Age	Total	Write and Read Only		Elementary School		High School	Higher Education	Not Stated	Write and Read Only		Elementary School		High School	Higher Education
		Yes	No	Grade 4	Grade 5-8				Yes	No	Grade 4	Grade 5-8
Men
Total	Numbers								Percentages
15+	4,632	365	165	1,217	860	683	276	1,066	10.2	4.6	34.1	24.1	19.2	7.8
15-24	1,160	14	19	236	300	178	9	404	1.9	2.5	31.2	39.6	23.6	1.2
25-34	1,151	25	18	283	277	258	95	195	2.6	1.9	29.6	29.0	27.0	9.9
35-44	793	43	21	262	133	116	85	133	6.5	3.1	39.7	20.2	17.6	12.9
45-54	675	67	40	198	100	77	60	133	12.4	7.3	36.5	18.5	14.2	11.7
55-64	516	113	43	164	41	41	13	101	27.2	10.4	39.5	8.2	9.9	3.1
65+	337	103	24	74	9	13	14	100	43.5	10.1	31.2	3.8	5.5	5.9
Women
Total	Numbers								Percentages
15+	4,803	517	91	969	1,855	462	55	1,350	13.2	2.3	24.5	46.9	11.7	1.4
15-24	1,226	16	9	157	479	177	5	383	1.9	1.0	18.6	57.0	21.0	0.5
25-34	1,184	19	14	218	659	180	34	60	1.7	1.2	19.4	58.7	16.0	3.0
35-44	780	68	14	191	367	71	12	7	9.5	1.9	26.4	50.7	9.8	1.7
45-54	953	110	26	203	229	19	3	3	18.6	4.4	34.4	38.8	3.2	0.6
55-64	593	141	17	125	98	10	1	1	36.0	4.3	31.9	25.0	2.6	0.2
65+	277	163	11	75	23	5			58.8	4.0	27.1	8.3	1.8

We are also finding a higher percentage of Jewish men who attended high school (without indicating if they completed their studies) and higher education: 19% attended high school and 7% enrolled in higher education compared to 12% and 1% respectively among the women. It is worth noting that the percent of Jewish high school student was relatively high compared to the general non-Jewish population and even to the numbers in Israel.

Another interesting phenomenon is the high percentage (47%) of all female students (ages 15 and up) in grades 5 – 8. It can be deduced that a girl entering an elementary school would have normally graduated. That is different for boys, who in many cases dropped-out after the 4^th grade. This was most common before world war one as can be gleaned from the numbers for men ages 35 and up. This still continued to a certain degree even after the war (see values for ages 15 – 24). It had a lot to do with the state of mind in those days and also on the possibilities of education (as described in dr. Gelber's article).

The percentage of girls in high school increased after the establishment of the all-girls high school in Drohobycz. 21% of female students ages 15 – 24 was not much different the 23.6% for boys in that age group. That is in contrast to the situation that existed before the war (ages 45 – 54) where 14% of the men and only 1% of the women attended high-school.

After the war the number of women in higher education increased somewhat whereas the number of men in this category decreased somewhat. Among the men ages 35 – 44, 12.9% had a higher education degree whereas among the 25 – 34 years old only 9.9% had such a degree. Some of this can be attributed to the fact that certain percentage of young men studied abroad and after completing their studies did not return to Drohobycz and thus did not register with the community.

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Occupation	Total		Read and Write		Elementary School		High School	Higher Education
	Numbers	Percentages	No	Yes	Up to 4th grade	Grades 5-8
All Occupations	4,570[16]	100.0	8.3	3.7	30.5	34.5	16.8	6.2
Professional and Technical	319	100.0	2.6	4.7	8.8	6.9	12.2	64.8
Managers and Business Owners	81	100.0	4.9	6.3	33.3	13.6	33.3	8.6
Clerical	363	100.0		1.2	6.6	28.8	55.5	7.9
Merchants and Agents	930	100.0	7.6	7.7	38.8	29.7	14.6	1.6
Crafts and Industry	932	100.0	6.2	2.7	46.5	37.6	6.6	0.4
Unskilled Workers	315	100.0	32.3	5.4	41.6	18.2	2.5
Services	142	100.0	25.4	5.6	41.6	24.6	2.8
Not Stated	1,486	100.0	6.9	1.7	22.0	48.1	19.6	1.7

Generally there is a correlation between the level of education and the occupation (Table 19). The highest level of education, namely 65% can be found among those in the professional and technical occupations (doctors, lawyers, engineers, etc.). On the other hand, higher education is almost non-existent among the unskilled and service workers, merchants and craftsmen. In these occupations, the percent of illiteracy and education up to the 4^th grade is relatively high. Among the managers, business owners and clerks 8%-9% had higher education. 33% among the managers and business owners, and 55% among the clerks had high school education.

The managers and business owners can be divided into two groups: More than third had low level of education (up to the 4^th grade). The second group (42%) had high school and higher education levels. However, the numbers with grades 5 – 8 education level in these occupations is quite low (14% compared to about 30% among the clerks and merchants).

It is also interesting to note that among those where occupation is “not stated” there is relatively a high number with grades 5 – 8 (22%) and high school education (48%). It is possible that among those are young people who have not entered the work force yet, were not married and were dependent economically on their parents^[17].

In most cases there was a “match” between the husband and wife's education levels. Table 20 shows a series of three sets of numbers. The lower level of the table shows the women's educational level distribution based on the husband's level of education.

13.4% of women married illiterate men. Among those with educational level of 4^th grade, 66% of women married men with the same educational level. Among women with high school education 41% married men with the same educational level whereas 39% married men with higher education level. Among women with high school education there was a tendency to marry more educated men.

[Page 80]

Wife's Education Level
Husband's Education Level		All Wives or Couples	Literacy		Elementary School		High School	Higher Education
			No	Yes	Up to Grade 4	Grades 5-8
All Husbands		1,683[18]	235	55	482	737	158	20
Literacy	No	225	131	4	70	16
	Yes	105	20	32	22	29	2
Up to 4th Grade		677	67	10	319	275	6
Grades 5-8		307	9	6	46	222	24
High School		239		1	23	149	64	2
Higher Education		130		2	2	46	62	18
Percentages of Husbands by Wife's Education Level
All Husbands		100.0	13.6	3.2	29.2	43.9	8.9	1.2
Literacy	No	100.0	59.9	1.8	31.2	7.1
	Yes	100.0	19.0	30.6	20.9	27.6	1.9
Up to 4th Grade		100.0	9.9	1.5	47.1	40.6	0.9
Grades 5-8		100.0	2.9	2.0	14.9	72.4	7.8
High School			100.0	0.4	9.6	72.4	26.8	0.8
Higher Education			100.0	1.5	1.5	35.5	47.7	13.8
Percentages of Wives by Husband's Education Level
All Husbands		100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Literacy	No	13.4	58.4	7.3	14.6	2.2
	Yes	6.3	8.7	58.2	4.6	3.9	1.3
Up to 4th Grade	40.2	29.0	18.2	66.2	37.3	3.8
	Grades 5-8	18.2	3.9	10.9	9.5	30.2	15.1
High School		14.2		1.8	4.8	20.2	40.6	10.0
	Higher Education	7.7		3.6	0.4	6.2	39.2	90.0

High school and higher education expenses were high.

[Page 81]

In addition, there were limitations on the numbers of Jewish students that were allowed to enroll in institutions of higher education in Poland (numerus clausus) and in many cases the youth had to go abroad to study. Only in rare cases could a child of a poor family continue his or her studies. In many cases the oldest child had to drop out of school to help support the family. The cases where a child from a poor family was able to break the cycle were few and far between and made a great impression on the community.

Father's Occupation	Total		Literacy		Elementary School		High School	Higher Education
	Numbers	Percentages	No	Yes	4th Grade	Grade 5-8
All Occupations	2,036	100.0	1.4	1.0	2.6	48.6	24.2	4.2
Professional and Technical	100	100.0	3.9	4.9	5.9	41.2	38.2	5.9
Managers and Business Owners	92	100.0			10.9	26.1	50.0	13.0
Clerical	275	100.0			4.6	22.2	59.3	13.9
Merchants and Agents	663	100.0	0.7	0.6	14.5	50.9	29.1	4.2
Crafts and Industry	387	100.0	0.5	0.5	29.3	57.6	11.6	0.5
Unskilled Workers	276	100.0	1.9	1.4	40.2	50.7	5.4	0.4
Services	60	100.0			16.6	75.1	8.3
Unemployed	193	100.0	4.2	2.9	20.2	46.4	19.7	6.6

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