Lithuania

Lithuania

Translation of Lite

Edited by:
Dr. Mendel Sudarsky
Uriah Katzenelenbogen
J. Kissin
Berl Kagan

Published in New York, NY, 1951

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Acknowledgments
Project Coordinators
Max Heffler and Sonia Kovitz

This is a translation from: Lite (vol.1), ed. Mendel Sudarsky, and Uriah Katzenelenbogen.
New York: Jewish-Cultural Society, 1951.

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I

The Exile of the Lithuanian Jews in the Conflagration of the First World War (1914-1918)	Louis Stein	89
1. Outbreak of the War – 2. On the Eve of the Exile – 3. The “Kuzhi Frame-up” and the Expulsion of Lithuanian Jews – 4. The Resounding Effect of the Exile and New Banishments – 5. The “Yekopo” (Jewish Committee of Relief) Aids the Hapless Wanderers – 6. Pogroms on Lithuanian Jews Who Avoided the Expulsion – 7. The Plight of the Refugees – 8. Lithuanian Jews on a Strange Soil – 9. The February Revoluticn of 1917 – 10. Repatriation.
Jews in the Independent Lithuania (Between the Two World Wars)	Dr. Mendel Sudarsky	119
The Establishment of the Lithuanian “Taryba” (Council) – The Taryba of Vilnius Proclaims the Independence of Lithuania and Selects a King – Jews are Invited to Participate in the Taryba and in the Ministerial Cabinet – Lithuanian-Jewish Freindship. Dr. Vigodsky the First Jewish Minister – The Lithuanian Government Moves to Kaunas – The Molding of the Jewish National Autonomy – The Government Declaration of May 12, 1922 – The Jewish Part in Political and Industrial Life – Jewish Cultural and Social Achievements – The Origination of the Jewish National Council – Obstacles in its Activities – The “Golden Era” of the National Autonomy – The Downthrow – The Bitter Disappointment – The Resignation of the Minister of Jewish Affairs, Dr. Soloveichik – The Desperate Struggle for National Autonomy – Anti-Jewish Regulations and the Daubing of Jewish Signs – The Liquidation of the Ministry for Jewish Affairs and the Jewish National Council – The Blow at the Jewish Communities (Kehilot) – Anti-Jewish Decrees – The Fight of the Jewish Parliamentarians (Jewish Seim-Faction) for Jewish Rights – Smetona's Goup d'Etat, December 17, 1926 – Remnants of the National Autonomy – New Restrictions against Jews – The Inner Strength of the Lithuanian Jewry.
The Last Year of Existence of the Lithuanian Jewry	Dr. Samuel Greenhaus	153
Vaad of Lithuania (Council of the Union of the Jewish Communities, 1623-1761), Its Structure and Role in the Social Life of the Lithuanian Jews	Dr. Mark Wishnitzer	163
1. Origin of the Vaad of Lithuania and its General Character – 2. The Economic Legislation of the Vaad – 3. Its Regulations Regarding Education, Social Protection, Family Life and the Ways of Conduct – 4. The Discipline of the Communities and the Functions of their Councils – 5. The Defense of the Rights of the Jews and he Fighting Off of Instigators against Jews – 6. The Composition of the Vaad – 7. Its Business Order – 8. The Executive Body of the Vaad – 9. Contentions among the Leading Forces – 10. Cycles in the History of the Vaad – 11. The Autonomical Organization of the Communities in Samegitia.
The Origin of the Karaites in Lithuania and Poland	Dr J. Brutzkus	193
The Karaites of the Last 150 Years	M. Uriel	203
To the History of the Conference in Kaunas in 1869	Gregory Aronson	209
The Conference in Kaunas in 1909	G. A.	219
The Jewish National Autonomy in Independent Lithuania (Reminiscences with a Critical View)	Dr. Joseph Berger	223
The Second Conference of the Jewish Communities (Kehilot) of Lithuania	Dr. E. Widans	241
The Jewish National Assembly in Lithuania	L. Shimoni	251
The Jews in the Seim (Diet) of Lithuania	M. S.	273
The Jewish Faction in the Seim of Lithuania	Dr. Jacob Robinson	275
The Jewish Faction of the Second Seim	A. Makovsky	279
The Jews in the Municipal Administration	Att. Lazar Lowenstein	287
Lithuania and Its Fight for Vilnius	Dr. Mendel Sudarsky	295

II

LITVAKS ENVIRONS – NEIGHBORS – MORES – LANGUAGES – PORTRAIT PAINTINGS
Litvaks	Uriah Katzenelenbogen	307
1. The Ethnographical and Historical Boundaries of Lithuania – 2. The Heathen Lithuania – 3. In the Christian Lithuania – 4. The Jews among Subjugated Peasant Peoples – 5. Insurrections, Liberation of Peasants, Prohibition of Lithuanian and Whiterussian Languages – 6. Lithuania, a Hostelry of Jewish Learning – 7. The Language Milieu of the Haskalah – 8. Litvaks the World Over – 9. Hopes for Good-Neighborly Relations among the Peoples of Lithuania – 10. The Split Lithuania – 11. Litvaks after the Destruction of the Lithuanian Jewry.
The Tribe of the Litvaks	Dr. Aaron Steinberg	393
1. The Air of Lithuania – 2. The Interpretation of a “Cross-Head" (Tseilom-Kop) – 3. King Solomon Receives the Last Word – 4. And This is the Blessing.
The Litvaks of Kurland	B. Rivkin	407
Jewish Dishes in Lithuania	Hirsh Abramovitz	417
Our Lithuanian Yiddish	Yudel Mark	429
1. Among My People I Live – 2. Not All of the Lithuanian Jews Talk Alike – 3. Common Peculiarities in the Sounds of all Colloquialisms – 4. The Notorious Confusion of S and Sh (Sabesdiker Losn) – 5. The Yiddish of Samogitia – 6. The Usual Lithuanian Yiddish – 7. The Yiddish of Suvlkija – 8. About the Origin of the Diversity of Colloquialisms – 9. The Grammatical Gender in our Usage – 10. More Idiosyncrasies in the Grammar of the Lithuanian Dialect – 11. The Vocabulary of the Lithuanian Yiddish – 12. Lithuanianisms in Yiddish – 13. Typical Proverbs of Our Localities.
Types of Lithuanian Jews Painted by Jewish Artists		473
Sholem Feigensohn – Jewish Women, His Mother; Mark Chagall – An Ethrog and Palm Branch Carrier, A Scroll Reader, A Preacher; J. Messenblum – A Lithuanian Jew; Max Band – A Laborer; Albert Rappoport – A Pauper-Wanderer; Sholem Feigensohn – A Village Pedlar, His Father, A Learner, Hermann Struck – A Porter, A Bricklayer, A Coachman.
TORAH – MUSAR – RABB1NATE – HASIDISM (HABAD) – MISNAGDIM – YESHIBOT
Learning in Lithuania in the 19th Century	A. Menes	483
Introductory – Hasidot and Misnagdot – The Gaon of Wilno and his Disciples – The Yeshibah of Volozhin – The Yeshibot of Mir and Eishishkai – The Medium Yeshibot – Learners in Synagogues – Rabbi Israel Salanter and the Musar-Movement – The Musar-Yeshibot of Slabodka (Viliampole) and Novogrodek.
The Gaon of Wilno Rabbi Elijah	Prof. Louis Ginzberg	527
The Originators of the Musar-Movement	A. R. Malachi	539
1. Rabbi Joseph Zundl Salanter – 2. Rabbi Israel Salanter – 3. Rabbi Isaac Blazer.
Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Transcribed for the Book “Lite” by Uriah Katzenelenbogen	Narrated by Prof. Chaim Tchernowitz	567
Rabbi Isaac of Panevczhys	Rabbi M. S. Shapiro	577
Rabbi Abraham Duber Shapiro (The Last Chief Rabbi of Kaunas)	Rabbi M. S. Shapiro	583
Habad	Aaron Zeitlin	589
Hasidot and Misnagdot	Rabbi Moses Hyim Adler	599
The Method of Interpretation in the Lithuanian Yeshibot	Prof. Samuel Atlas	605

III

In the Yeshibah of Volozhin	Ben-Zion Pecker	615
The Yeshibah of Telshiai	Rabbi Elijah Meir Bloch	623
The Yeshibah of Mir	M. Hindes	631
Lyda, Its Rabbis and Its Yeshibah	M. Evensky	635
The Kibutz of Panevezhys	Isaac Rivkind	645
The Yeshibah in Radun (Chofetz-Chaim Yeshibah)	A. Rivkes	653
Midrash-Kaunas	Piesach Markus	663
1. Kaunas-Aleksotai – 2. How Simcha Zissl was Converted to Musar and his Disciple Nathan Hirsch– 3. Slabodka and Nehardea – 4. A Last Musar-Discourse.
HASKALAH (ENLIGHTENMENT)
The Cultural History of the Haskalah of the Lithuanian Jews	Dr. Jacob Shatzky	691
The Forerunners of the Haskalah Movement – The First Champions of the Maskilim in Lithuania – The Haskalah in Lithuania in the Period of 1794 to 1830 – Jewish Printing Establishments in Lithuania – Prince Adam Czartoryski, the “Maskilizator” – Jews in the University of Wilno – Lithuania after 1812 – Haskalah in Lithuania in the Years 1824-1841 – The Officious Haskalah (1841-1873) – The Rabbinical Seminary of Wilno – The Situation After 1863 – The Ideological Strife – Haskalah-Literature.
Mordecai Aaron Ginzburg and His Tract “Abiezer.”	Dr. Menahem G. Glenn	759
The Sages of Zhagare	Dr. Hermann Frank	775
Abraham Mapu	Baal Ditnion (Nahum Shtiff)	785
Micah Joseph Lebensohn and Mordecai Zvi Manne	Mordecai Jaffe	789
Eisik Meir Dick	S. Charney	795
Michel Gordon	S. Charney	799
1. Michel Gordon, the Poet – 2. Michel Gordon, the Man.
Eliakim Zunser and His Songs	J. Kissin	817
ECONOMICS STATISTICS – INDUSTRY – COMMERCE – CRAFTSMANSHIP – TRADE GUILDS – PROFESSIONS – RURAL OCCUPATIONS – AGRICULTURE
The Economic Condition of the Jews in Lithuania (1919-1939)	Jacob Lestchinsky	827
I. The Increase and the National Status of the Population of Lithuania – II. The Jewish Population in Kovno Government for the Last Century – III. The Population Movement of the Lithuanian Jews – IV The Emigration of the Jews and Non-Jews – V. The Economic Development of the Kovno-Government and the Jewish Participation in it in the Middle of the 19th Century – VI. The Transition Period between Kovno-Government and Independent Country – VII. The Social Aspects of the Different Peoples in Independent Lithuania according to the Census of 1923 – VIII. The Economic Advancement of the Independent Lithunia – IX. The Economic Condition of the Jews in Independent Lithuania – X. Jewish Artisans in Independent Lithuania – XI. Jews in the Professions – XII. The Jewish Cooperative Movement.
The Pioneer of the Leather Industry in Lithuania, Hyim Frankel Narrated by his son, Jacob Frankel.	Transcribed by Uriah Katzenelenbogen	941
His Parents and Youth – Settling in Shauliai – The Rise of his Tannery – New Tanning Chemicals – Our Shoe Factory – Shauliai, a World Center of Leather – Our Agents – The Productivity of the Leather Plant – Our Customers – Relatives – At Home and in the World – The First World War and After.

IV

Jewish Artisans and Their Guilds in Lithuania	Dr. Mark Wishnitzer	971
Of Jewish Rural Occupations in Lithuania	Hirsh Abramovitz	985
Fishing and Inn-Keeping.
Agriculture and Gardening among Lithuanian Jews	Engineer-Agronomist Jacob Rossein	997
1. A Glimpse of History and Statistics – 2. Big Land Ownership – 3. Husbandry of Village-Peasants – 4. Farming in the Suburbs – 5. Suburban Gardens and Orchards – 6. House Gardening.
OF THE JEWISH LITERARY MILIEU IN INDEPENDENT LITHUANIA
J. Kissin	The Editors	1015
Lithuania in Poetry and Prose	J. Kissin	1019
My Years in Kovno	Abraham Reisen	1025
Baal Machshovot (Dr I. Eljashev)	S. Charney	1045
A Year in the Lithuanian State (Reminiscences of a Wayfarer)	Dr. A. Mukdoni	1071
Yiddish Literary Achievements in Lithuania (A General Survey)	N. I. Gotlieb	1099
Hebrew Literary Buds in Lithuania	Nathan Greenblat	1111
CITIES AND TOWNS – REMINISCENCES – DESCRIPTIONS
Vilnius and Lithuania	Baal Dimion (Nahum Shtiff)	1125
Vilnius – Jerusalem of Lithuania	Dr Mordecai Kossover	1131
The Jewish Kaunas (Historical Outline)	Ezekiel I. Berlson	1155
The Dawn of the Socialist Movement in Kaunas	Victor Shulman	1161
Silhouettes of the Past Intelligentsia of Kaunas	Leon Savage	1173
Kaunas	Osip Dymoff	1183
Reminiscences of Kaunas	Frank Epstein	1191
Childhood Years – Kaunas, A Religious Jewish City – Benevolent Associations – Associations for the World Beyond – The Revolutionary Era – The “Bund” in Kaunas.
From Pumpenai to Kaunas	B. I. Byalostotzky	1203
Pumpenai – Pasvalys – Panevezhys – Kedainiai – In Jonuva – in Shirvintai – In Taurage – In Kaunas.
My First Journey Through Samogitia	Uriah Katzenelenbogen	1227
My Desire to See Lithuania – Coachmen – Birzhai – Through Villages – Seeing Off Travelers to the U. S. A. and South Africa – The African Groom – A Glimpse at Pasvalys – Vashkai – Zheimelis – Kriukai – Shauliai – The “Directorius” Jonas – Gruzdzhiai – Papile.
Of My Visits to Lithuania	Vladimir Grossmann	1251
The First Strike of the Bristle Workers in Lithuania	M. Ladsky	1259
Vanished Worlds	H. Smith	1263
Three Times in Lithuania	B. Z. Goldberg	1269
Wilno, a Chapter in My Life	Der Tunkeler	1279
A Contrabandist of the Jewish Book	Morris S. Sklarsky	1289

V

My Two Visits to the Lithuanian State	Zivion (Dr. B. Hoffmann)	1293
First Visit – Second Visit – Pashvitinys – Linkuva – Vashkai – Shauliai.
My Grandmother Hya Sarah	Dr. I. N. Steinberg	1309
The Family Eljashev of Kaunas	Dr. Samuel Eljashev (Friedman)	1313
In Independent Lithuania in 1933	Daniel Charney	1323
Of My Visit to Lithuania in 1938	Joseph Opatoshu	1327
What Lithuania Signifies for Us (Reflections of the Past)	J. Batnitzky	1331
In Joy and in Grief Among Lithuanian Jews	M. Mandelman	1333
Rabbi Hirsh of Slobodka	S. M. Sherman	1359
Reb Hirsh Nevyazher	Ben-Isaac	1363
Rabbi Joseph Zechariah Shtern (What People Told of Him)	A. Jerushalmi	1365
Rabbi Herzl	B. Shilman	1369
Rabbi Shloime Dayon (Batnitzky)	Dr. S. Melamed	1373
Types of a Past Generation of Lithuania	Dr. Mordecai Katz	1375
Reb Itche of Baltushov – Reb Arele Shloime's – Reb Moishl of Vishtytis.
Moishele the Author	Dr. Z. Kadish	1383
A Blessing by Chofetz-Chaim	Abba Gordin	1385
Elchanan the Shoemaker (Markus)	Leib Nadel	1393
Among the Halutzim in Lithuania	I. N. Gotlieb	1395
Introductory – The Centre – Labor – The Agricultural Cooperative “Kibush” (Conquest) – The District of the Cooperatives “Golil” (Galilee) – “To the Exile We Shall Not Return."
The Jewish Panevezhys	Dr. Joseph A. Heller	1403
Social Activities – The Old Mode of Living – The Rabbi of Panevezhys – Maskilim and Revolutionaries – Deputy of the Duma (Parliament of Russia).
Panevezhys in 1906	Alter Epstein	1413
The Jewish Common Folk of Panevezhys	M. Birman	1415
Panevezhys After the First World War	Selig Back	1419
The Market-Place and the Pharmacy – Synagogues – The Town Pump – Rabbinate – Karaites – Jewish Writers – People's Intelligentsia – Organizations and Institutions – Our Common Towns.
A Visit to Panevezhys in 1938	Meir Kimmel	1425
Klaipeda (Memel)	Dr. Samuel Greenhaus	1427
The Town Kelme	Rabbi Hyim Karlinsky	1437
Palanga	Yudel Mark	1453
Kedainiai	Sholem Datt	1475
Alytus	Dr. Martin Lichtenstein	1477
A Short Visit to Alytus	Alte Arsh-Sudarsky	1479
My Town Dusetos (Types and Episodes)	Mordecai Jaffe	1483
This and That – The “Rebel” – Elijah Sarah-Mirra's – A Talmudic Discourse – The Dyer – The Busy Itzikl – Leibele “Nie Rush.”
Israel Matz	The Editors	1497
My Home Town, Kalvarija	Israel Matz	1499

VI

My Town, Skuodas	Leo Bernstein	1513
Gargzhdai	Isaac Goodman	1517
Merkine	Dr. Menahem G. Glenn	1519
Raguva	Enoch Stein	1523
Introductory – Common People – “The Flirt” – Horse Traders – Types – Jesters of Raguva.
Pilvishkiai	Dr. M. Z. Levinson	1533
A Semester in Krekenava	B. Shilman	1535
My Town, Moletai	Ben-Zion Riback	1539
Obelial	B. G. Zack	1543
Towns of the Region of Vilnius	M. S.	1547
Glubokoje	Alte A. S.	1551
Ratnitza	A. Zebulun Berebitches	1553
Through Lithuania (Cities and Towns)	Dr. Mendel Sudarsky	1561
Mariampole – Vilkavishkis by Berl London – Telshai – Raseiniai by N. Ben-Chaim – Utena – Jonuva by Peisach Janever – Taurage – Birzhai by I. R. – Kedainiai by Ben-Alexander – Mazheikiai by Josephus – Rokishkis by Yudel Gapanovitch – Plunge by N. Rill – Jurbarkas – Lazdijai by I Dan – Anykshchiai – Zarasai – Kupishkis – Prienai – Zhagare – Kudirkos-Naumiestis by Z. Tumpovsky – Pandelis – Seredzhius by G-n – Seta – Balbierishkis – Chekishkis by R. K. – Gelvonai – Pushalotas – Veliuona – Shiaulenai by Ben-Daniel – Onushkis by L. B. E. – Rudamynas by Daniel Riback – Kuliai – Taujenai by A. Walt.
Vishtytis	Dr. Mendel Sudarsky	1627
Virbalis	Dr. Mendel Sudarsky	1633
DESTRUCTION OF THE LITHUANIAN JEWRY
The Annihilation of the Jews in Vilnius	Victor Shulman	1649
“At the Vilnius Cemetery”	Layzer Ran	1659
Lithuanians and Jews During the Nazi Occupation	Ona Shimaite	1661
The Ghetto Library of Vilnius	Dinah Abramovitz	1671
Most Significant Moments in the Ghetto of Kaunas	Leib Garfunkel	1679
1. From the Beginning of the War to the Inclusion in the Ghetto – 2. The Time of the “Aktionen” – 3. The So-Called “Quiet” Period – 4. Recurrent “Aktionen,” Exile to Estonia, The Liquidation.
The “Arbeit-Einsatz” (Forced Labor) in the Ghetto of Kaunas	Agronomist Jacob Oleisky	1713
Medical Aid in the Ghetto and in the Concentration Camp	Dr. Aaron Percikovitz	1719
A Day Behind Barbed Wires.	Dr. S. Dolnitzky	1735
Cultural Activities in the Ghetto of Kaunas	Dr. Samuel Greenhaus	1743
A Jewish Teen-Age Girl in the Concentration Camp (Katzet)	Vera Elijashev	1757
The Annihilated Family of Moishe Katz	L. Odes 1763

VII

The Destruction of the Jews in the Ghetto of Shauliai and of the Adjacent Towns	A. Jerushalmi	1767
The First Massacres – The Tanneries – The Jews Forced into the Ghetto – The “Aktionen” – Aerodrome – The Hospital – The Public School – The “Werkstuben” (Workhouses) – The Reduction of the Ghetto Area – The Turf-Decree – August 20, 1942 – The List of the 27 – The Winter-Camps – Working Places Outside of the Ghetto – The Abolishing of the Currency System – Camps of 1943 – The Gallows – Reopening of the School – - The “Kasernierung” (Transfer to Barracks) – Children “Aktion” – The Rescued Children – Change in the Ghetto Administration – Camp A. B. A. – Evacuation from the Camps – Evacuation from the Ghetto of Shauliai – Foreign Camps of Panevezhys and Jonishkis – Extermination of the Jews of Tytuvenai – The Perishing Jews of Telshiai and Adjacent Alsedzhiai, Vevirzhenai, Varnel, Zharenai, Tverai, Luoke, Navarenai, Plunge, Plateliai, Rietava – Why No Renstance? – Our Annihilation and the Lithuanian Attitude.
To the History of the Destruction of the Lithuanian Jewry	Joseph Gar	1833
Introductory – How the Jews Were Tortured to Death in Panevzhys – Atrocious Killings of the Jews in Mariampole – The Perishing of the Jews in Garleva, Pakonys, Veiveriai, Mavruchiai and Other Communities Near Kaunas – A Lithuanian Professor Repents.
The Last Days of Kelme	Rabbi Samuel Meir Karnovitz	1845
The Destruction of Jurbarkas	Zvi Levit	1849
Simnas and Its Annihilation	Zvi Levit	1853
Devastation of the Jews of Pasvalys and of Nearby Jewish Communities of Jonishkelis, Vashkai, Linkuva, Pumpenai, Salochiai and Vabalnikas	B. Rainus	1859
Skaudvile and Its Annihilation	Rabbi Hyim Stein	1861
The Devastation of the Jews of Kudirkos-Naumiestis	Dr. L. Goldstein	1865
The Destruction of Gargzhdai	~	1867
Annihilation of the Jews of Aukshtadvaris and of Trakai, Onushkis, Valkenikai, Rudishikis, Leipunai and Lantvaris	Jacob Sapirstein	1869
Annihilation of the Jews of Alsedzhiai Transcribed by A. Jerushalmi	David Factor	1881
Annihilation of the Jews of Vyzhuonis	Rabbi Shabbethai Katz	1885
In the Woods (Leaves of a Diary)	Berl Kagan	1887
Partisans of the Ghetto of Slabodka	Chaint Meiserovitch	1907
Lithuanian Jews Among the Jewish Survivors in Germany	Marion Gide	1919
The Bibliography of the Literature on the Annihilation of the Lithuanian Jewry	Dr. Philip Friedman	1923
1. Books and Articles of General Content – 2. Vilnius – 3. Kaunas – 4. Cities and Communities of Lithuania and its Neighboring Border Regions – 5. Resistance and the Partisan Movement – 6. Works of Literature and Folk-lore.
Index of Personalities		1941
Index to Places Mentioned		1977
Sponsors of the Book “Lite” (Lithuania)		1989
Partial Contents of Volume Two “Lite” (Lithuania)		2001

VIII

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Introduction	Prof. Louis Ginzberg	25
HISTORY
Lithuania in Our Memory	Uriah Katzenelenbogen	33
The History of the Lithuanian Jews – From the Middle Ages to the First World War (A General Survey)	Dr. Mark Wishnitzer	43
The Distinctive Traits in the History of the Lithuanian Jews – When Have the Jews Appeared in Lithuania? – The Realm of Lithuania in the Middle Ages – The Union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1386 – The Charters of 1388 and 1389 for the Jews in Lithuania – The Reign of Vytautas (1386-1430), a “Bright Era” for the Lithuanian Jews – King and Grand Duke Casimir (1440-1492) Continues the Policies Regarding the Jews of Vytautas – The Expulsion of the Jews in 1495 – The Return of the Jews in 1503 – The Expanding of the Jewish Population in the 16th Century – The Conditions of the Jews under the Rule of Sigismund – Sigismund Augustus (1548-1572), a Liberal Ruler – Anti-Jewish Tendencies among the Middle Classes of the Urban Population and in the Circles of Impoverished Gentry – The Magdeburg Law Aggravates the Position of the Jewish Merchants and Artisans – Henry Válois, a Prince of France, becomes King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania – A Hard Struggle for the Morsel of Bread after the Economic Prosperity at the End of the 16th Century and in the Beginning of the 17th – The Disaster Brought by the Invasion of Moscow. The Initial Emigration to Western Europe – The Economic Decline Brings Social Discrimination – Vilnius (Wilno) and Kaunas (Kovno) – Spiritual and Cultural Upsurge in the 17th and 18th Centuries – Lithuanian Jews under the Rule of Russia – The Strife between the Hasidim and the Misnagdim – The Rise of the Haskalah – Under the Reign of Nicholas I – The Difficult Path of the Haskalah and its Progress – The Epoch of Alexander II – Changes in Social-Economic Conditions in the Second Half of the 19th Century – 1869, the Beginning of the Emigration from the Kovno Province to the U S A. – Emigration and Self-Help, Zionism and Bundism – The Revolution in Russia (1905) – On the Eve of the First World War.

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Acknowledgments
Project Coordinators
Max Heffler and Sonia Kovitz