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A certain time ago, we had already presented, in our newspaper, the story of the accusations against a pair of young Jewish persons from Zamość, that at a masked ball, that they had belittled the crucifix through the masks that they had worn, and the characters that they had portrayed. On the basis of an explanation offered by a secret agent, who presented this matter to the authorities firstly on the following morning, after the masked ball, the procurator took an interest in the matter, and a [legal] process was instituted against the 3 Jewish young folk. This trial took place in Zamość in the district court, on the 24th of this month.
Sitting on the bench of the accused were Yaakov Wechsler, age 25, a resident of Zamość, and Yitzhak Wirtzenberger, age 21, from Nadworna (Galicia). The third accused, Mendel Premminger, has until now not been uncovered by the authorities.
The accusation said, that the two defendants, together with Premminger, deliberately belittled the crucifix, the Holy Cross, at a Jewish masked ball, spitting on it several times, [that] the two accused were wearing masks of a ‘jester’ and a ‘devil,’ and attacked a person (Premminger) who was wearing the costume of a Cardinal. The latter had defended himself with a crucifix, which hung around his neck, and the first two spit at him.
The policeman, Jan Mazur appeared as a witness against the accused, and he argued that the charge was correct, as stated.
By contrast, a gendarme was called by the prosecution as a principal witness, because he was the first to take note of the fact of the profanation of the cross, and testified in court that he did not see that the crucifix, worn by the person dressed in the Cardinal's costume, was spat upon.
There were many Christians among the witnesses which were called by the defense. These Christian witnesses, among which could be found a teacher at a local school, categorically declared before the court, that they saw nothing in the behavior of the accused at the ball that would constitute a belittling of the crucifix.
A couple of witnesses from the side of the defense declared, among other things, that the policeman Mazur, on whose arguments the entire case is built, was in the room at that time, but not in a sober condition.
The renown Warsaw lawyer Henryk Ettinger[2] appeared as the attorney for the defense.
The prosecutor gave a speech, in which he mellifluously portrayed the ‘unheard of fact of the profanation of the Holy Cross, the symbol and emblem of all Christendom,’ and he demanded the most severe penalty for the accused according to the Codex of Discipline (Profanation of the Crucifix), with the full force of the law. – Paragraph (73) calls for a sentence of between 1 and 6 years.
The attorney for the defense, Lawyer Henryk Ettinger, first called into question the meritorious side of the accusation, that is, did the fact of the alleged profanation ever even take place. But – he said further – even if one were to agree to the position of the prosecutor, that one cannot rely on the testimony of those who saw nothing, because it is possible that in the course of the five-hour party that something of this sort did occur, which they were not in a position to see – one must, of necessity take into consideration the fact that under any circumstance, there was no pejorative intent. The prosecutor – says lawyer Ettinger – expressed his understanding in his speech, that the accused cannot be thought
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of as people acting in an unwitting fashion, who committed their act out of ignorance. Against this argument of the prosecutor, it must be noted that the Russian Synod in its time even went so far as to recognize in connection with Tolstoy, that he presented his attack against the church – ‘because of ignorance.’
Finally, lawyer Ettinger took note of the fact that, that it is entirely an open question as to whether the crucifix [in question] was a sacred one, because it is only in connection with a consecrated (swiancony) crucifix that it is possible to speak of profanation, otherwise – the entire accusation regarding profanation loses its entire foundation.
After a short consultation, the court announced a ruling with explanations. In the explanations, the court says, that the fact of spitting on the crucifix is thought to be demonstrated. However, the court takes the position that there was no pejorative intent here, or a desire to elicit any embarrassment, but that the profanation took place because of foolishness and ignorance. Therefore, the court recognized the mitigating circumstances, and hands down a sentence of 6 months imprisonment for the defendant Yaakov Wechsler, and Yitzhak Wertzberger – a 5 month arrest in the provincial prison (the time that they were incarcerated due to the trial) will not be taken into account.
The sentenced parties indicate that they will file for appeal of the ruling.
The interest taken by the Zamość Jewish community was enormously great. The small chamber in which the trial took place was overfilled, and masses of people waited in the street next to the court house for the disclosure of the ruling.
Footnotes:
By Moshe Freilich
Zamość was a Jewish city, there were hundreds of Jewish towns, and I think they were all similar to one another like drops of water, but nevertheless, each city had its own ‘fine points.’ – Zamość certainly had them.
The history of our city is conveyed in our Pinkas, from what has transpired, from the distant past to the final days. However, we have not produced a Pinkas of everything – many details rise from one's memory, that only this, or that specific resident of Zamość, is able to recall. May I be allowed then, to weave in a garland of recollections, into the larger history of our dearly beloved city, a little of what I remember of my surroundings, of my circle of people who were close to me, with whom it came for me to live, struggle and create.
How the Zamość Water Carriers Came to Declare a Strike
Berish Beckerman came to Zamość in the middle eighties [sic: 1880's] as the son-in-law of Mekhl Itzkeh's, or Mekhl Toytngrebber, an Enlightened Jew. Berish and his son-in-law had a honey cake bakery.[1]
In those times, there was no Jewish community life. Berish Becker's son, a dabbler in theatrical performance, had performed in the theater at one time, and read an occasional book in Yiddish, introduced evenings in his bakery, to which workers would come, who were released from work on a daily basis to attend the Mincha-Maariv prayers. On Friday nights, they would enjoy the time at Berish's in the bakery. And he would sing Yiddish songs for them from the theater, and would read a variety of storybooks to them. His children would accompany him in the singing, and his daughter, Zisseleh, who was already attending Gymnasium, and his son, Moshe, who was studying music, would also help out.
It was in this manner, that the bakery gradually became transformed into a sort of community club of the workers of that era, such as: shoemakers, tailors, hat makers, carpenters, bakers, and just ordinary young people, until Berish established the first Dramatic Circle, which , from time-to-time, would put on performances, led by Berish and his children. The revenues received went towards community purposes.
The bakery used more water than in the ordinary private home. The porters, the water carriers, would always be quick to carry water to Berish's, more willingly than to other places, because he would treat them better, and afterwards give them a little baked produce.
Zamość was a rich city, with a multi-branched commercial infrastructure, many manual tradesmen, beautiful homes, wealthy ones, reaching 3 and 4 stories high, and the water carriers would have to carry water up there. Alas, this was the way they made a living. When the Festivals came around, all the workers rested, except for the poor water carriers. They needed to work on the holidays even more than they did during the regular days of the week, because then, more water was consumed.
Berish could never stand this injustice, and he argued with the water carriers: why do you not celebrate Passover like all the other Jews? As was the usual case, one would always pass the buck to a second person. Until one time, on a Sabbath, Berish called together all the water carriers, telling them to come immediately to him, first thing in the morning, before they take up their work. Anyone who will not comply, will not be permitted to carry water to him anymore. Additionally, no baker will continue to retain their services as water carriers. And when Berish said something, it was considered spoken.
Jews went off to services in synagogue, and immediately after eating, Berish invited the water carriers to him for a beer. He kept them under his oversight in this manner for both days of Yom Tov. A tumult arose in the streets, where was
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one to get water to prepare the good meals of the holiday? It was intolerable; here, we have to put up the samovar, and the water carrier isn't coming.
It became immediately known in the Batei Medrashim, that it was Berish's mind that was behind this. Observant Jews were unable to say anything, and the more worldly also needed to remain silent. And that is how it stayed in 1904, when the water carriers in Zamość declared their first strike, and their leader was Berish Beckerman, the theater producer.
The Wife of the Orchestra Leader
Everyone in Zamość, up to the third generation, knows what happened about 50 years back, the story of ‘the wife of the orchestra leader,’ who was held up as an example of a proud Jewish woman, who carried her Jewishness with pride to her last breath.
The Russian ‘Siberian Division’ came to Zamość from Krasynstaw in the year 1908, and took up residence in the newly constructed barracks. The officers, of all ranks, and their wives, were satisfied with this change. Krasnystaw was truly, in comparison to Zamość, a provincial town. The ladies, for the first time, saw elegant stores, especially the fashion shops.
The wives of the officers were often customers in Eliashberg's business, where I worked at that time. There, all of their gossip was already well-known, among other things, the wife of the orchestra leader was a Jewish woman, and that she observes Judaism, blessing candles every Friday night, and the like. Her husband, Winokur, was a convert to [Russian Orthodox Christianity], and treats her very well. It was not only once, that he had already asked her to adopt the Russian Orthodox faith, but she refuses him. Seeing that it does no good, he began, a little at a time, to convert the children, indeed, without the knowledge of his wife.
When she became pregnant for the final time, she had an illegal abortion, not wanting to provide the Russian Orthodox faith with yet another soul… she became sick, and her condition became dire.
Her husband saw what was up, that his wife was dying as a Jew, and not wanting to have to deal with the Jewish ‘congregation,’ he took counsel with his relatives, and decided to bring the chaplain of the division, the Russian priest, to convert his wife.
However, the wife stood fast, and asked the priest, asking him to give her his hand, and seizing him by the cuff of his sleeve, so to speak, to fetch a Jewish Rabbi, because she wants to make her final confession [sic: vidui] according to Jewish law. She wants to die as she lived, as a Jewish woman.
In the music battalion, there was a larger number of Jewish recruits. Immediately, there came a delegation to Eliashberg in the store, and related what was happening. The Rabbi, with a number of Jewish representatives immediately traveled to the woman, and provided her with last rites.
She died on the same day. She had a funeral, the likes of which residents of Zamość hadn't seen in a long time. All the Jewish newspapers wrote about it. The pictures, with thousands of people, who accompanied the funeral cortege was sent all over the world, firstly to the Zamość landsleit in America.
The incident reached the highest authorities. Police began to make an investigation, the grave was opened, and an autopsy was performed. The midwife was punished with a sentence of several years imprisonment.
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The Jewish intelligentsia of Zamość, which always placed itself at the disposal of the community, regardless of party affiliation, after a hiatus of almost 12 years, in the year 1917-1918, placed itself at the head of the Jewish labor movement. They gave away their skills, their knowledge, time and energy, in order to teach and organize, and enlighten and educate the ignorant Jewish workers and simultaneously help them to organize themselves, in order that they could fight for better living conditions. I will recollect three names here, three comrades, three organizers and leaders of the Bund, with whose names, not only is the genesis tied up, but also the later activities and struggles of Jewish workers in our city. They came from non-proletarian homes. They dedicated their lives to the issues of working people.
In first place, Itzik Goldstein stands out. A swarthy, short person with strong character, and an entirely very hot temperament. He inherited characteristics and attitudes from his uncle, I. L. Peretz. Despite the fact that he then spoke a rather weak Yiddish, and would stumble over his words, he was the right leader for the right time. With his glance, he could ignite a world. He was a veritable fountain of knowledge. The loyalty that the masses had to him was boundless. If it was said that Itzik said it, then they were prepared to do everything to make it happen.
Additionally, there were the two brothers, Mikhcheh and Salek Levin; [they were] from the most important Jewish aristocratic and observant family, grandsons of R' Shmuel-Leib Levin. Their father, Lipe'leh Levin, already somewhat worldly himself, learned Jewish religious studies together with his two sons. Their mother, from an important family in Piotrkow, an Enlightened person, studied secular subjects with them.
Mikhcheh was tall and substantial in build, and everything with him had to be planned out and in order. He had already studied in Lodz to be a textile master. He knew the life of a working man from practical experience. He was very substantive in matters pertaining to organization. Everything that he did elicited respect, as one in whom one can place trust, and therefore he enjoyed a great deal of loyalty as a leader.
Salek, Mikhcheh's younger brother, was the opposite of his brother. He was, indeed, very well-educated. Nobody could study a chapter of Marx's ‘Das Kapital’ with the workers like he did – but he was a very nervous type, and stormy. He could go for weeks being unkempt, and not dressed normally. And suddenly, he would appear in the street, completely decked out to the finest degree.
This same trio, from the Jewish Socialist intelligentsia, took a raw mass of hundreds of ignorant workers from tens of trades, and various vicinities – shoemakers, tailors, carpenters, bakers, makers of spats, hat makers, white goods seamstresses, domestic servants, and others, and made knowledgeable people out of them. They literally demonstrated a wonder, in raising them to such an elevated spiritual plateau, almost unbelievable. Yesterday's people, who did not know an alphabet, began to understand problems in politics, literature and arts, and themselves became the leaders and organizers of others.
This was not achieved easily. However, these three had their own system. Not to be accomplished immediately, but a little at a time, pushing here and there, they achieved this. Previously, they organized a group of workers who were more enlightened, so called ‘semi-intelligentsia,’ such as Chaim Shtikh, Abish Shipzeisen, Mordechai Zwillich, Hirsch Ehrlich and others. With this group, they implemented a series of familiarization works. In today's parlance, it would be called the creation of a seminar, where these workers were taught how to become organizers. With this group, they began to implement a series of technical activities and with their help, later organized evening courses for workers (first beginning with the young).
With the help of the veteran organizer of the year 1905, Yaakov-Meir Topf, this trio solidified relationships with single delegates from each trade. Following a plan, they organized one trade after another. Group after group. Without clamor, without tumult, but on a solid foundation. When this base was in place, a headquarters location was rented. Also here, they made the effort to extract the leadership and the activists from the body of the workers themselves. They put the
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apparatus in place, to which they continuously provided direction. They paid attention to every little detail, taught, directed, systematically acclimatized the leadership of the movement, and never removed themselves, from the outset, and didn't overly emphasize that they were the ‘leaders.’ It was in this structured fashion, that the trade union movement got organized – everything in its proper place, and each trade having the various sections.
The three were everywhere. After working hours, you could find: Itzik running a meeting with the tailors; Salek organizing the carpenters to strike; Mikhcheh making plans about opening evening courses earlier than originally intended, about a fundamental cultural set of activities.
It is to wonder at the patience, force and energy of these three. They didn't have a free minute, no day of rest. During the afternoon hours they were occupied with giving counsel. In the evenings, meetings and conferences. Saturday after the noon hour, with the party, Saturday in the evening – meetings or gatherings. Friday evening – ‘Bench’ evenings, lectures.
These three belonged to the organizers of the Bund, but in their day-to-day activities, they did two fundamental things for the entire mass – the trade union movement, which encompassed all the Jewish workers, without regard for political persuasion, and the second – the cultural work, which was also implemented for everyone.
They also set up a sort of ‘High School.’ The objective was to prepare activists from the masses of the laboring class. Every week, at least twice a week, 3,4, and sometimes 7 men would come and they toiled over political economics, the history of socialist struggles, about literature and art. Not only one of these would later take on a prominent position in the various directions in the Jewish street.
It is to their credit that the municipal library, later to take on the name, I. L. Peretz Library, acquired a large element of readers. The readers' circle of the sphere of balebatim was circumscribed. It was first the Enlightened Jews, and the organized workers, that provided the mass of readers for books that had long remained untouched.
Among the items credited to these three is the establishment of a choir, which was implemented by the singer, Notteh Fishelsohn.
A separate chapter concerns the strike of the weakest and most vulnerable part of the labor force in that time – the strike of the domestic servants, has already been recorded in a number of the works in our Pinkas.
Guests in Zamość between the First and Second World Wars
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Warsaw the metropolis of Poland and of the hundreds of Jewish towns and villages, would be a frequent guest in the province. There was not a Sabbath, or a Festival holiday, when the trains from Warsaw would not convey speakers, artists, singers, party-activists, to all of the cities and towns, who would ‘spread light’ in the ‘dark hinterlands’…
It would become Yom Tov in the shtetl. Guest would add warmth, literally bringing joy and light in the towns sunken in the darkness ]of their monotonous tedium].
Zamość was one of the greatest consumers of this imported joy and light. Zamość, though, had certain specific drawing power for the activists from faraway. Other towns would ‘beg,’ and request for a long time until someone willingly came. Going to Zamość was undertaken more readily. We had a rather fine ancestral pedigree – the city of Ettinger and Peretz – and a good personal reputation, and auditorium that could accommodate guests in a rather fine manner. And the speakers, presenters, debaters, singers and artists, were well honored, and treated as guests.
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In the period following the First World War, a veritable constellation of the best presenters, in the Yiddish word and art, came through Zamość. I will attempt to briefly mention those, whose visit are well ensconced in my memory, and elicit the warmest memories.
The first swallow who came to us was comrade Lejzor Levin. He brought the first visiting-card from the Bund to the Zamość audience, primarily to the workers and the intelligentsia. He was among the first visitors in our city. It took place when the Bund newspaper, ‘Lebensfragen’ went from being a weekly to being a daily paper. The party conducted a broad publicity campaign. It sent speakers over all the cities and towns. The central committee sent L. Levin to us. Short, not very broadly built, with small glasses. He would constantly take them off when he spoke. In personal conversations, he would speak quietly, lengthily, as if he were counting each word. So we thought to ourselves: – And this person is the one who has to speak in front of an open gathering? He doesn't have any ‘voice!’ But wen he went up on the dais, and took hold of the word, he showed his great talent as one of the best orators that the Bund had. From then on, he was a guest who came to us often – – –
And if the Bund had such a success with its first speaker, the others could not rest. It appears that the Poalei Tzion arranged to bring Dr. Sh. Uris. The title, ‘Doctor,’ already told us that there will be a ‘ferocious debate.’ And, indeed, that is what was the case. The confrontation was scheduled for a Saturday, and indeed, Dr. Sh. Uris came to the Poalei Tzion. The theater auditorium was filled to overflowing. The speaker, then something of a young man of pleasant appearance, was well received by the weaker sex, and did not disappoint with his presentation, ‘living up to the measure.’ The leaders of the Poalei Tzion, Millstein, Moshe Garfinkel, Meir Adler, subsequently thanked the Bund with great grace, which had filled the theater auditorium. In general, a rather far-reaching tolerance reigned in our Zamość, and the tactic of boycotting the speaker of an opposition group was practically unheard of.
But it was not only the [political] parties that brought their speakers. A very great, and deciding factor, was the I. L. Peretz library, especially when its management was transferred under the direction of the local Jewish labor group (about this, there is more appropriate details provided in other works). Boris Eisurovich came on the first occasion. It is my impression that he tried out his wonderful lectures about India on us, the residents of Zamość…up to eight days before his coming, right along with when the notices depicted the themes and theses of his talk, the tickets were snapped up. His two lectures about ‘The Two Lands of the Legendary ast,’ remained in the memories of the audience for a long time, and comrade Eisurovich repeated these very same, identical lectures in our city not only once. He allowed himself to ‘rest’ for a couple of years, and he came once again with his India…. and once again, the audience hung onto hearing about the Indian wonders and miracles….
Not rested up from the impressions of India, and the notices already depicted that the singing duet, Ruth Leviasz and Moshe Rudinov are coming for a concert, in which they will be accompanied by the composer, M. Cohn. The concert took place in the municipal movie theater. Since our anti-Semites couldn't stand this, and instead of Saturday, as originally agreed, they allocated the hall for Monday, and thereby, ‘secret hands’ took out parts of the piano, in order that it will not be able to be used. For the second concert, they provided a fire, which had been ignited from old film, and the continuous smoke indeed disturbed the singers…. but ignoring all of this, this visit by artists was a very big spiritual and material success.
He was called ‘the Bohème of the Bund’ – and I refer here to our beloved and hearty friend, A. Litvak. We had a fine bit of aggravation with him. Which of the activists in the various towns did not live through the heartache of having a speaker that didn't show up. A room has been made ready, notices have been posted, tickets have been sold, a delegation goes to the train, and in the end…. the guest is not here. The pain for us, and the shame for those who were opposed to us… Comrade Litvak caused us this kind of a bit of aggravation in that winter. It is Friday, the first lecture is supposed to take place that night, everything is ready, and he's not here! However, a couple of hours later, my friend, Hella Ashkenazi (today Schaffner) brings me in a frozen comrade Litvak… it then becomes apparent, that at the Zawodo Station, where one has to change (coming) from Lublin, Comrade Litvak was late for the train, and was stuck there. So he grabbed a peasant wagon, and rode into Zamość. We were barely able to warm him up; hot tea, and a big feather covering from Zamość brought him back to ‘form,’ and for our aggravation, we had a tenfold pleasure from his two lectures: in the hall of the city council on Friday night, on the theme, ‘New Directions in Yiddish Literature.’ And
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Saturday afternoon, on the theme, ‘Criticism in Yiddish Literature.’ All of our expectations were exceeded. Comrade Litvak ‘held forth’ on the Sabbath at the home of the brother of I. L. Peretz. Later, in the year 1927, when Comrade Litvak had arrived, now as a guest of the Jewish School Organization, for the tenth Yahrzeit of Peretz, he rode immediately to the Peretz family.
That winter, we finished the literary season with a lecture from Comrade Kh. Sh. Kasdan. Comments were made for a long time about this wonderful speaker, who enchanted the audience with his half-Russian-Litvak accent.
The Zionists also were not silent. If they didn't bring their speakers for literary themes, they would bring from among their best speakers for election campaigns. The Zionist organization brought the well-known writer and speaker, Nathan Schwalbe to the campaign for the city council. He was beloved by his followers, admired by others, and respected even by his opponents. One went to his appearances eagerly – imagine, Schwalbe!
Yiddish theater had loyal friends in Zamość. Yiddish theater troupes would be received by us in truly royal fashion, and the Mother of the Yiddish theater, Esther Rachel Kaminsky,[2] never missed an opportunity to be in Zamość during her tours in Poland. When she appeared by us for the last time in the year 1919, she came with the entire ensemble of the ‘Central’ theater. For those who participated, this was one of the greatest holidays. Older people told, that when Esther Rachel first came to Zamość (she was then performing in Ptachinsky's theater, where there later was a restaurant and candy store) many sat up all night in order to be able to buy a ticket.
Artur Zygielboym, a person of ethical character, was a frequent guest with us. This was because Zamość belonged to his ‘territory,’ – born in Krasnystaw, and later active in Chelm, he considered Zamość to be his own nearby location. He would come either on party missions, or on matters of the trade union movement. One time he was together with Herschel Himmelfarb. This was on the eve of a party conference, and they appeared in two separate factions of the Bund. Comrade Artur, on a specific occasion, left a rather unique impression with his lecture, ‘The Child, The School, and The Masses.’ This lecture was commented on for a long time.
Comrade Herschel Himmelfarb would especially come to us for election meetings. He had opponents in our ranks from many sides – either Zionists, or communists – but people came to hear him eagerly. With his turn of phrase, and his beautiful rhetoric, he would smooth things out, and have a rather great success.
The Zamość cultural activists become aware that the poet Ch. Leivick is in Warsaw, on a trip to the Soviet Union. What does this mean, that he is going to be in Poland, and not come to Zamość? The I. L. Peretz library gets in touch with Warsaw. Undertakings, correspondence – Leivick can come on a weekday. Well, let it be a weekday then, we will arrange a holiday in the middle of the week. And that's what really took place. That wondrous day with Leivick was recalled for a long time, and he was not forgotten. He immediately became friendly and familiar with us. This was especially the case when he met up with someone from his home town, – the friend, Rachel Korngold, who came from his birthplace of Uman.[3] We strolled with him outside the city, in those places immortalized in the work of Peretz; he had conversations with is fully committed followers. In the evening, in a fully packed hal, he held his lecture about the new Yiddish literature, and he read chapters from ‘Golem,’ from ‘Behind the Castle.’ Zamość was overjoyed, and in its chronicles, it was recorded that – Ch. Leivick, the Yiddish troubadour of our generation was its guest.
The Neustadt library, named for Dr. Sh. Ansky also laid bricks towards the cultural building up of Zamość. In her manner and with its means, it too illuminated our spiritual lives. Here, before my eyes, stands the handsome Peretz Markish, who was invited by this library to deliver a lecture[4]. He stands up on the stage of an overflowing hall, his
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white face, with the fiery eyes, enchant the audience, which is literally entranced. Handsome, and splendid is he, and it was not for naught that a kibbitzer expressed himself by saying – he is ‘The Ladies' Rebbe,’ and the majority in the hall were indeed members of the fairer sex…
The news that Joseph Opotashu was coming to Zamość, elicited a tremendous reaction, in the provinces as well.[5] Neighboring towns – Szczebrzeszyn, Krasnobrod, and Hrubieszow, sent delegations to us in order to ‘borrow’ Opotashu, and that it was unjust, that Zamość should ‘keep this dear guest for itself.’ What do you mean, only one lecture in Zamość? Give us something too. However, we held ourselves haughty – Opotashu is for Zamość. In the hall, where Opotashu was to speak, there was an very unusual audience, not the usual one, which we normally had at such events. Velvet hats, silk hats, black hats…. everyone came to hear the author of ‘In the Forests of Poland.’ Very much earlier than the scheduled hour, the hall was completely seated. However, we had to endure a disappointment – Opotashu, the master of the written word, was no speaker. In general, he read his lecture from paper, and the audience, which was waiting for something of a novel word, remained cold…. Opotashu was supposed to give two lectures with us. We feared that his second talk would not be well attended, and we ‘approached’ the movement from Hrubieszow, indicating that we didn't want to ‘monopolize’ Opotashu only for ourselves. On that same evening, he did, indeed, travel to Hrubieszow. But we had no regrets over his visit. Also, without the scheduled lecture, Opotashu's visit was a point of pride for Zamość.
We had a different kind of disappointment with Sholom Asch.[6] We carried on negotiations with him about coming to us. Everything was discussed; dates, themes, an honorarium. However, he set a condition, that before his trip to Zamość was to be publicized, he needs to be paid 200 dollars (in real dollars, not Polish zlotys). This irritated us, and Zamość felt used. The demand was not met. Zamość was even proud of this as well. Sholom Asch is, indeed, Sholom Asch, but Zamość did not want to allow itself to be put on a level where it could be taken for granted….
Our first teacher from the I. L. Peretz School, which was part of the Yiddish School Organization, Rachel'leh Gershuni, once dug her heels in – [that] we had to invite Yaakov Pat (she called him Yankeleh). She was a strongly capricious person, our teacher, and it was necessary to let her have her way. As it happened, Yaakov Pat brought the key to open the I. L. Peretz School in Zamość. The lecture that he gave at that time, ‘Half a Century of Yiddish Literature,’ literally enchanted the audience. From that time on, Zamość no longer waited for someone to ‘capriciously’ demand that Yaakov Pat should come. There was no season, when Pat would not visit our city with his beautiful lectures.
Can it be, that the globetrotting Melekh Ravitch should find a way and not come to see us? His first visit to us, was actually a ‘business’ one. He had come to Zamość to urge greater distribution of ‘literary papers’ – a minimum of 50 additional subscribers have to be generated – it cannot be any other way. And if Ravitch is in the city, how can you imagine that he wouldn't hold some sort of a lecture? However, a limitation is encountered – there is no permission. Actually, a request was submitted; it was sent into the City Elder's office on time; however, if no refusal has come in the final 48 hours before the lecture, then everything is OK. All is well, but the police require ‘black on white,’ the permit…. and it just so happens it is now the Sabbath, and the office of the City Elder is locked, and the hall, filled to overflowing, together with the speaker, sit and wait…. Finally, a little money changed hands, and we had the great pleasure of hearing not only the lecture, but also a preview reading of his work on the excommunication of Spinoza.
The talented writer and speaker, Baruch Sheffner could not skip over our Zamość, who, incidentally, nearly became a son of the city here. He came to us often with his spiritually rich lectures. For many years, Zamość long remembered and retold his lecture, ‘Twelve Weeks of Being Psychotic.’
It would warm up (and often get really hot) during an election campaign. At that time, every group, and political persuasion would reveal itself to us with the most attractive and best of what it could muster. In the ‘center’ we knew
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– one must send first-class material to Zamość… Dr. Yitzhak Szyfer[7] had a franchise with us during election campaigns. He was actually elected in our 27th election district, on the ballot of the National Minorities. He was very popular with us. One of his relatives, Leibusz Szyfer was something of a local resident, and had lived in Zamość for many years already. People ran to hear him speak.
The leftists at that time also brought a cannon of theirs, one of the most famous speakers. It was in the time when Zinoviev still occupied his leadership position in the Comintern, and this speaker was called among us, ‘The Polish Zinoviev’ – his name was Yitzhak Gordin. He really had a mighty voice, and a sharp tongue.
On a second occasion, the leftists brought a Litvak, a tailor – no family name was known – only ‘Comrade Yakov.’ He also had a well-earned success as a speaker.
Shlomo Mendelson, in those years was a ‘free agent,’ – not belonging to any political persuasion that had adherents in Zamość. He joined the Bund only in later years. However, he had supporters among all.
People didn't want to believe it – he, Henryk Ehrlich – is he really here in Zamość? He came at the time that Yerakhmiel Brandwein was elected as a councilman to the City Council. Two hours before the advertised schedule, the hall was filled to overflowing. The city council had never seen an audience like this before. No community activist from Zamość had ever experienced such an occurrence – such an audience, such sympathy in such a presentation. People from Zamość, not only Bundists, expressed wit pride – H. Ehrlich had been with us.
So religious Jews got envious – they, the more liberal, will bring speakers, and we will remain silent? And they attempted to retaliate. On one Sabbath, they brought the Senator, Rabbi Kowalsky (from Wloclawek). Kowalsky was indeed a Polish name, but he happened to be a first class orator in Yiddish.
I received the last notification of a grandiose visit to Zamość when I was already in Argentina. I moved away in 1926 and the notice was from the year 1927. Beinish Mikhailovich came to Zamość. I received correspondence about this visit. It was something colossal – Zamość could not recall when a Jewish, or non- Jewish personality had attracted such an audience. People came from all of the surrounding cities and towns. Mikhailovich came, at that time, to a special 30 year jubilee meeting of the Bund. This visit remained as an historic date in Zamość.
Footnotes:
By Itcheh Leib Herring
Zamość was not an industrial city, but it had a large number of Jewish workers who were employed in small industries, in handicrafts – tailoring, shoemaking, carpentry, baking, lock making, were practically [sic: exclusively] ‘Jewish’ occupations. Together with the tradespeople, the laboring element was the largest majority of the Jewish population of Zamość. To this, it is necessary to count the very significant number of Jewish employees in commercial businesses and bureaus, employed by merchants and industrialists. One also must take the large number of house servants into account. It is from this element that organized Jewish labor arose in our city.
I am gone from my home city for more than 35 years. The following lines would be more precise, and would contain more accurate facts than I would have the necessary facts at hand. I am writing from memory, and therefore it is possible that an inaccuracy may creep in, an incorrect piece of data, a name that was omitted.
My memories belong to the period of 1916-1917 and onward.
The beginning of the renewed labor movement during the very years of the occupation of the First World War, has its roots in the stormy revolutionary time of 1905-1906. Paying no heed to the fact that the uprising of that time was suppressed, that almost all the people in leadership positions of the movement were in prisons, and a part exiled to Siberia, nevertheless, the foundation remained in place. The seeds sown in 1905 sprouted again more than 10 years later.
On a Saturday afternoon, on a hot summer day an advisory meeting took place of a very tight circle of people in the bakery of Gedalia Jonasgartel. Despite the fact that he personally was the owner of the bakery, he was a close sympathizer of the movement. A representative of the central committee of the Bund came especially to attend this meeting, and if I am not mistaken, this was comrade Emanuel (Novogrudsky).
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At that time, not only the Bundist organization was put back in place. At that time, the trade union movement was built up, which at that time was one and the same, and filled out rather extensive activities in Zamość, in economic as well as political and cultural areas.
At a gathering of the Lublin region, the Zamość branch of the Bund organization was tasked to organize the surrounding towns, Szczebrzeszyn, Bilgoraj, Tomaszow, and others. In this manner, Zamość becomes the center of Bundist work in the area.
At the same time, community life, in general, begins to get organized. The Zionist movement comes into being, manifested by all of its various groups, among which can be found Poalei Tzion. A contesting political ideological struggle begins, which elicits a great deal of liveliness in Zamość. Meetings, gathers, lectures. Do understand, that there is no lack of fights that break out between opposing factions, with regard to hegemony over the masses.
From that time, a memory remains with me of an election fight that took place during the municipal council elections.
An election meeting had been called to take place in the synagogue of the Altstadt, at which time, speakers were to appear, both Zionists and from the Bund. The principal speaker from the Zionist camp was Hirsch-Chaim Geliebter. The Bundist speaker was supposed to have been Zak. But during the gathering, the Bundist was not given the opportunity to speak, and the Bundists then disrupted the meeting.
The second meeting already, was held in the Bet HaMedrash of the Neustadt, organized by the Bund. The editor of the periodical of the Bundist Youth organization, ‘Zukunft,’ came to this meeting (apparently Mr. Nathan Shafran). The police got involved, and it came to a confrontation, and an array of people were arrested, among them also, the writer of these lines.
At that time, the Bundist Youth Organization, ‘Zukunft’ organized itself, and began quite an extensive set of activities in education, and Enlightenment work (it had a choir, took part in the Drama Circle). I am certain that this activity is recorder by other Zamość writers, and so here, I will further relate (to the extent that my memory permits me) who were those first activists of the trade unions, who in their larger majority, except for a small number of exceptions, were mainly Bundists.
From the men's and ladies' tailors, the first leadership committee was: Getzel Schwartzbier, Yudel Platz, Anshel Eisenkopf, Gittl Gantz, Sarah Herring, Yossel Karp, Lejzor Finkman, Yidel Spodek, Shia Binn, Hinde Karp and others.
By the hat makers – Yaakov-Meir Topf, Pinchas Topf, the writer of these lines, and others.
From the commercial employees – Nahum Korngold and others.
From the carpenters – Michael Cooperman, Zalman Gershon Gewirtzman, Shlomo Schwartz, and others.
The shoe top makers and shoemakers in general – Lejzor Deutchgewand, Ephraim Zitser and others.
From the bakery workers – Lejzor Jonasgartel, Itcheh Mohrer, Little Areleh, and others.
A central body was elected from all of the representatives of all trades. This management committee was accompanied by a worker's advisory council, which represented the Jewish labor movement, directed their economic actions and cultural activities.
A few minor items in connection with a strike by the men's tailors. The smaller owners of tailor shops had already given into the demands. Two, as it just so happens, the biggest of the shop owners, Moshe-Chaim Grossman, and Volvish Richtman, held out stubbornly.
Several employed workers were at Moshe-Chaim's business. They did not hear the call to strike. They went into work. This was a set back to the action. On a certain day, a delegation from the union came into this business, and ordered the workers to put down their work. Seeing that the two Grossman brothers were getting angry at the delegation, and that the workers aren't budging from their places – -the delegation then did what it held to be necessary under the circumstances… after that, it was no longer possible to work at that location.
Seeing the destruction about him, Moshe-Chaim Grossman fell to his feet, pleading that he be left in peace, and he signed the demand made by the workers.
The workers at Volvish Richtman actually did go out on strike, only one, Yankel Buterman remained (he was called ‘The Compromiser’), who had convinced himself that he would be a witness at ‘Fat’ Volvish's (That's how the boss was called), and remained working. It was not possible to ‘do’ at Volvish's what was done at Grossman's, because Volvish had good connections to the balebatim of the city. Therefore, on a specific night, the strikebreaker was awaited, and he was set straight to the extent, that the following day, he passed up the opportunity to even show up at work….
Several workers got arrested as a result of this action. At that time, a member of the P.P.S., Zaba was the Burgomaster of the city, and thanks to him, all those who were arrested were released.
A very difficult action came to be carried out at the time of organizing the strike of the house servants. Of all people, it was the not-so-rich, but liberal households, close to the movement (the Brandweins, Peretzes, Epsteins) who immediately gave into to proposed demands. A battle needed to be waged against the Indlers, the Biebers, the Funts, the Templedieners, and other extremely wealthy Jewish families, who could not comprehend the ‘chutzpah’ of the housemaids…. the strike, however, was successful.
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The economic situation in the city got more difficult in later years, (as was the case generally in all of Poland), and political reaction got stronger. An outward migration began, first and foremost among the working classes. As a result of this activity, important activists were torn out of our midst, and they went off to America, or Argentina, an part to Warsaw.
However, even from afar, we thought of our home city in general, and of the labor movement in particular. From America, a group of us former activists in the movement – Michael Cooperman, Shia Binn, my modest input, and others, did not cease to maintain a contact with Zamość, and to help its institutions.
We created financial means to support the I. L. Peretz School, which was directed by Chaim Shpizeisen; we sent help for those arrested on political accusations; we sent money for the trade unions and for a variety of other institutions.
By Nekha Rok-Schwartz
Images and pictures of my home city are intermixed among my memories – from my one-time and cut down Zamość, of our Zamość. Page after page of those bygone years open up in my memory – childhood at home; the young years at school; involved with community activity.
With eyes close, and I see the familiar image of the city, at the beginning of the Altstadt, the majesty of the copper ‘cupola,’ the roof of the Russian Orthodox Church, which winks at the second end of the city – to the gothic spires of the Catholic Cloister, and between them, like a binding link, the clock of the city in the tower of the magistrate's building, that would at regular intervals, toll the hour, reminding [listeners] of the passage of time.
Lo, it was just yesterday that we went for a stroll in the ‘little orchards….’ discussions are carried on in the fine alleys of the park, where on one side there are hills, and on the other side is the renown ‘Stak Vasser….[1]’
And here – here are the buildings, the representative official buildings, and the finer houses, which were woven into the history of all community movements of our time.
It was here that Jonah-Yeshiya [sic: Yehoshua] Peretz lived – the brother of I. L. Peretz; his sister Hesseleh Peretz from the hat business, her son, Itzik Goldstein – named for his uncle; and over here, lived Peretz's friends, Ashkenazi, the Geliebters, the Zederbaums, the Pfeffers – every name a milestone in the history not only of Zamość, but also of the entire modern Jewish community movement. It is from these families, that both the founders of Zionist movements, and those who began to disseminate the Jewish Socialist concept among Jews, came forth – the leaders of the Bund and the ‘Fifth’ year and also later in independent Poland.
A very difficult action came to be carried out at the time of organizing the strike of the house servants. Of all people, it was the not-so-rich, but liberal households, close to the movement (the Brandweins, Peretzes, Epsteins) who immediately gave into to proposed demands. A battle needed to be waged against the Indlers, the Biebers, the Funts, the Templedieners, and other extremely wealthy Jewish families, who could not comprehend the ‘chutzpah’ of the housemaids…. the strike, however, was successful.
Perhaps we should take a walk to the old cemetery – there, Peretz's parents are interred; here can be found the memorial on the grave of Dr. Shlomo Ettinger; great Rabbis, well-known scholars, important people lie here in repose…
And a second thought rushes by – all of this has been, indeed was here yesterday – but is now no longer here… not one of those mentioned, or their children lives in these houses any longer; those who have departed into eternity, ‘repose’ not on their final resting places, even the memories of them, the grave markers, are no longer there….
And maybe yet another jaunt? – to the Neustadt, the neighborhood of the Jewish masses, of the common people with their needs and struggles – Let us perhaps go into the ‘Poor Person's Place,’ the collective Matzo Bakery….
And I see myself in my home, it is the Eve of Yom Kippur. My father had many things to take care of – as every Jew has to do on the eve of that Great Day – he went to the cemetery, he went to the bath, and one must go immediately to the confessional prayer, to fortify one's self. And I feel like I am standing by the annual, year-in and year-out ceremony of my father's hands outstretched to give a blessing, before he goes off to synagogue…. my mother is also integrated into these blessings – may a good year come to all Jews, and for the entire world….
And so we go out to see out parents off, and now I see how an entire city is on the move, being drawn there, to that place where the Gates of Mercy stand open, which have to take in the entreaties of father and mother, and of all Jews…
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And where were the Gates of Mercy at a later time? Years later, when these very Jews of Yom Kippur Eve, these Jews of the Tefila Zakah, were led, were driven to their wrathful destiny….
But that was later – now, I am still in the world of memories.
My house, a home that was Jewish, suffused with piety and goodness. On the contrary, my mother would argue: first be good, then you will also become pious. I remember the way she would make sport of Baylah Zalmeleh Pflug's who would take the doorknob in her hand, using her apron, so that she shouldn't make the doorknob trayf! This was because the hand sometimes held meat, and sometimes held dairy….
The Sabbath day with us was the day of being ‘examined.’ My mother had already finished reading the portion of the week in her Taytch-Chumash[2] for the neighborhood ladies, and waited for the teachers to arrive, who would bring the children to my father to be heard out. My father loved to pose really vexing questions to the children, seeking to ‘catch them on something.’ Since my mother could not put up with this, she would help the children, as well as their teachers.
Here is Natan the Melamed, or Wolf Bik (it appears that he got this name because he was big, and fat, and had a thick black beard). These were teachers of the Pentateuch and composition. My mother assisted them. It was a little more difficult when Isaac Abeles would come, or Mordechai-Jospeh – the Gemara teachers. Here she would stand behind the teacher's back, and with eye signals, asked my father for a bit of ‘mercy’ for the kids and their teachers….
Afterwards she would distribute some Sabbath refreshments, and the teachers would drink the ‘Special Sabbath’ baker's tea, and snack on the characteristic Zamość salted cookies.
The years of youth took the place of childhood. It is already after the First World War – 1917. Pogroms – Kolczak, Petlura, Balkhovich – pogroms against the Jews and the Balfour Declaration. The Zionists open up Hebrew courses. It was then that I, along with my friends, Sara Hackman, Faygel'leh Orenbaum, and three girls, built a circle. Our Hebrew teacher was Shlomo Schwartzberg. His instruction is imbedded in my memory to this day.
The pressure to acquire knowledge grows, the desire to do something. A call arises within us to be useful to humanity, we search for how we can realize this call of ours.
A path opens up for me and others of that generation. At the house of Yekel Orenbaum, young people get together, among them Getzel Schwartzberg and Shia Binn. They led me into the Bundist organization.
New thoughts, new feelings…The first of May 1919-1920… new winds are blowing across the world, revolution in Russia, Poland is independent, and we, the young people are no longer something of a raw [sic: untried] element, we already know ways along which the struggle is proceeding.
The Neustadt is seething; From all the streets and byways, from the Hrubieszow Gasse, the longest in the Neustadt and the surrounding byways, from the ‘Bomba’ Gasse, from all sides, young people are being drawn – everything is flooded, the marketplace, the center, which divides the Neustadt into four quarters. The crowd is marching – the specific day aids the air; here we are, passing the ‘Luxe’ cinema theater. The banners are fluttering and the shouts of the solutions to achieve freedom and justice ring out… and opposite this demonstration, here comes the Polish Socialist Party, the P. P. S. It comes out of the alleys of the Browar side [of the city]. The banners join – the banners of the Jewish demonstration of the Bund, and those of the Polish group… internationalism – equality, freedom, brotherhood.
Decades separate me from that time, and yet I still feel the beating of my heart, the boiling of the blood, and the flood of emotions – – – it seems to me that I am marching today, in this fiery demonstration with songs being sung, and with
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solutions to our struggle….Look, from the magistrate's building I can hear our comrade Zak speaking, from Hrubieszow… the world hears us!
And here we are, back from the demonstration. In the marketplace of the Neustadt, a finale of the demonstration is supposed to take place; Lieber Morgenstern is supposed to speak. There is some sort of commotion, a provocation, and then a tumult. The crowd dissipates.
My father greets me with the derisory comment: – what, from the shot of a pistol you ran away! – Fine heroes!
There indeed is an irony in his words. But also a connection to significance – such a parade! He suggested that in the forthcoming elections, he will take the ballots from everyone, but he will vote for Yerakhmiel Brandwein, that is to say, for the Bund.
Youth, storm and force – fight for ideals: old programs and new solutions. It is cooking with us. The Soviet Union is close, here comes the revolution also to us. And the pointed discussions ensue – the Combund arrives.
Our martyr, Artur Zygelboim stand before my eyes to this day, who carried on discussions with Yidl Platz, who worked in Warsaw. The latter was from the Combund. At the conference of the tailors, the Combund won. Again, a new chapter in Jewish Zamość.
Part of our activists go off to foreign places – some to the Soviet Union, some to North America, and others to other cities.
An intensive amount of work begins on the cultural front; a struggle for culture positions. Even though it is with great resistance, the I. L. Peretz Library is established; a Yiddish School Organization is founded, which created a Yiddish Volksschule; a Drama Circle. A local library is founded in the Neustadt.
As I take to leafing through these pages of my memory, I see how alive and vital my male and female friends all were – here I am, really, in the midst of the leadership group of The ‘Y. Sh. O.’ I see them, the active builders, the older generation with the colleagues, Shpizeisen, Shtikh, Jonasgartel, and the younger Rachel'leh Morgenstern, Meir Sternfinkel, and I am among them. Where are they today, these peerless builders of the culture? Singly, literally to be counted out on the fingers, they managed to survive this last catastrophe as if by a miracle.
Those who built up the library in the Neustadt did not have any better fate either – apart form myself, those belonging to the group that took this initiative were: Pearl and Sarah'leh Morgenstern, Yohanan Morgenstern, Moshe-Chaim Greenberg, Shimshon and Yekkel Feigenbaum, Simcha Zwerin, my sister, and others.
As if on the frames of a film, those performance evenings and discussions swim by; our presentations and study circle; the full location of the library, and trade union; the rows of books and periodicals….
And the gallery of speakers from faraway – the happiness of our youth in receiving all those who came to beautify us from all parts of the big world, and to enrich our lives – P. Markish and J. Opotashu; H. Leivick and Melekh Ravitch; Yaakov Pat and B. Sheffner….
I left our Zamość in 1928, at a time when community life stood at the highest level of activity.
On the evening of my taking leave, which by circumstance was carried out at the Neustadt Library, there were Bundists, communists, members of Poalei Tzion, and just plain young people – all ‘colors’ were represented, who graced our young percolating lives. As was inscribed in my going away album at that time by Leibl Rosen, the secretary of the library:
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‘Green, red, blue, yellow – mix all of you together;
All are brothers, all are sisters, from one father, and one mother.’
In this re-phrasing of I. L. Peretz, he wanted to impart the universality to his expression, that we had created around our library.
May these fragments of memory be a modest sprig to be placed on the unknown graves, where the bones and ashes of these dear and unforgettable ones were tossed – the builders of a generation, that was cut down.
Translator's footnotes:
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