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Part A – Introduction

I did not know Dynów, in spite of the fact that more than once I would be in a radius of ten to 20 kilometers from the village. Today I regret this, because so much was said about Dynów, and I've read about its rabbis, their businessmen and the [Zionist] pioneers that were there. There were times that I even had the opportunity to meet several of its citizens at different times, which I'll tell you about later. The first Dinover that I met was Mr. Y. G., one of the activist pioneers of the Hechalutz Hatzair [a Zionist youth group] in Galicia in the early part of the 1920s. This was at the end of the summer of 1924, when as a student of the high school in L'vov, and as a member of Hashomer Hatzair (another Zionist youth group) I requested to get to know about the life of the guards and the pioneers entering the well–known Hachsharah (preparatory program for Aliyah) named Binyan, located on St. Theresa Street, #26A. This was a building of three stories, which was dedicated as a vocational high school called the Dr. Kurkas School. I went there one evening and already from a distance I could hear the music of the pioneering songs that blasted energetically through the windows, which were opened. Now on the lower level we found a group of shomrim (watchmen) from the town of Sambor, and over there I also met Mr. Y. G. from Dynów, who was part of one of the pioneering groups on the top floor, which we would get to by climbing a ladder. The building was unfinished, and there weren't steps in it. I will never forget that wonderful evening that I spent among these pioneers, and the interesting story that Y. G. told me about the days of atonement in Dynów and about the pranks of the Hachavurah Halevanah.^[1]

I met my second Dinover in the winter of 1931 at a time when I was in the mansion of Baron Kellerman in the village of Tarnówka, which is 10 kilometers from Dynów. By the way, in that village I met a Jewish family by the name of Zibtzner that managed an inn on the main road. I was invited to the mansion by Hagraf Saruchinski, the owner of the forest called Hadlah Kańczucka, who wanted to subdivide the land into small parcels to sell them to the local farmers. For that reason a lumber dealer and agent was also invited, Jew who lived in Dynów by the name of Itchi Greens. In conversation I came to discover that all of them including Hagraf and including the farmers, related to Itchi with great respect and deference, because he was known as a seasoned business man who knew how to conduct transactions in these kinds of matters. He was skilled at recognizing the thinking of the local farmer and along with that he was careful to avoid any unfairness in the slightest.

My third episode regarding a Dynów encounter was when I met a group of Jews from Dynów in that region under completely different circumstances. That was in the summer of 1932, a time that I was in a military Hachsharah–

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called Beitar in the village of Konkubca (Kańczuga), next to Przemyśl, about 35 kilometers from Dynów. It was a hot summer day when about fifteen Jewish lads in brown Beitar uniforms and full military gear with rifles, bayonets, gas masks and backpacks participated in a mandatory 10 kilometer march in order to qualify for a letter POS. In the streets of the city of Konkubca, we were approached by wagons packed with Jewish businessmen on the way to Przemyśl. They were stunned when they saw the marchers pace military style– they heard them sing loudly in Yiddish and the leader of the platoon, marching shoulder to shoulder with them, was a young Polish officer, together with a young Jewish lad in Beitar uniform. The wagons stood still in place, and the Jews began rubbing their eyes because they couldn't believe what they were seeing, and more than that, their surprise of the Jews of Konkubca, when the Betari marching song rang out and the boys entered the city and got into formation in the center square. All the Jews of the town gathered at that place, and within a minute, they set up in the square, tables and benches with barrels of milk, butter, cheese and bread. Because of these Jews, we felt as if the redemption had begun (and in fact within sixteen years after that the dream of centuries was fulfilled, and a Jewish army was established in our ancient and new homeland). But those Jews, simple folk of pure faith, kindhearted, they did not get to see the fulfillment of their dream. Their dust was scattered on foreign soil, or even still alive any survivors of those Jews of Dynów and surround we met on that march, which was unforgettable.

Please consider the above lines and those that follow as a memorial for their lives in the valley of tears^[2] under conditions of oppression and deprivation and along with this, it should also be seen as a song of glory for their steadfast faith, Jewish heritage and their preparedness for struggle and sacrifice for the eternity of the Jewish people, and for the Zionist idea the coming to fruition of which of this Holocaust we were actually able to witness.

She lies on a hill about one and a half kilometers from The San River in central Galicia in a triangle between the cities of Przemyśl, (a distance of 40 kilometers to the east,) Raisha (Rzeszów), (a distance of 45 kilometers to the west,) and Sanok, (45 kilometers to the south). To the north of Dynów is the city of Przeworst, famous through its sugar factory, which is connected to Dynów through a narrow rail train, which starts in Dynów and runs along 35 kilometers, most of it is at the bottom of mountains. According to the data in the Polish geological dictionary^[3] from 1881 this city was established in the 15^th century, and in 1880 they counted 3700 souls, among them about 1200 Jews. In 1900 Dynów had 1400 Jews among the general population of 3,000. There was an old cemetery there, 600 years old. During the Austrian occupation from 1772–1918 a main road ran through Dynów between Przemyśl, (a famous fortress city) into the city of Kosice, otherwise known as Koshul, which was then in Slovakia. During the period of modern Poland, between 1919 and 1939, Dynów belonged to the district of Rzeszów, Lvov region, and central court district in Sanok [Sanok was a county seat, and the township was Rzeszów.]

Dynów was part of the district of Rzeszów, which was the seat of the government offices, consequently, the number of appointees and officers in the city was small, and most of the population earned their livelihood through labor and small business. Among the government offices remaining in Dynów, since most of the government offices were in Rzeszów, was a city court, post office, a national police station, and a train station. Therefore the number of government civil service workers was small, and only one Jew by the name of Zev Velfling [whose photo is here in this book]. served as the secretary in the city court. In connection with the industrial factories, businesses that were under Jewish ownership were the following: Three factories for soft drinks, a factory for making jam, and a sawmill to create lasts of different types for shoes and mannequins for fitting clothing, under the ownership of Zsukap & Baum.

Now as for the Jewish craftsmen their role was very recognized especially in tailoring, shoemaking, ceramics, tinsmith work and glassmaking (glazing). However the payment for this type of work was very low because of the absence of well to do people in this population. The power of pressure because of the tax burden on Jewish workers increased. A Jew was not able to survive between his financial debts and his compensation as a result of burdens placed on him without consideration for the situation.

As for the position of the merchants, especially the storekeepers against them stood all kinds of anti–Jewish obstacles and obligations spread systematically such as signs saying, ‘Do Not Buy From a Jew.’ and, ‘What's Ours is Ours.’

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All kinds of edicts whose purpose was singular to squeeze the Jews out of business and strip the Jew as businessman were put into place. For that purpose Polish stores were established for small business for dealing with grain, warehouses for the sale of wheat and agricultural products, and above all they adopted a tax system that was very heavy and demanded a lot of cash payment. These were placed on the Jewish small business owners that took them literally to the doorstep of poverty. In many cases they did not have the ability to redeem their personal property and their meager house furnishings that were taken from them in lieu of taxes that were not paid in time. Even midsize businesses suffered from these different laws that were created to oppress them, after the death of Marshall Piłsudski, and the opposition policies of Składkowski. At that point let me tell you about the moratorium on debt, which hit very hard on Jews, on the law of prohibiting them to go into villages to buy agricultural products, and which required the farmers to provide these products to the spolun warehouses [organizations that had a monopoly with the government] warehouses. The government had decreed that merchants couldn't go straight to the farmers to buy their product, which they would use for their business. Even in the villages, the shtetlach, the situation of the Jews kept getting worse, where they abolished the rights of Jews to have hotels. There were instances of murders of Jews in the villages, as in the side streets in the town of Błażowa where they killed an entire family that had a store which sold food and drink in 1935.

I would mention here the denial of rights of Jews to sell liquor or tobacco products. Because of this law of moratorium a great severe depression was placed on the Jewish street because it was impossible to get a loan and it caused a breakdown in the livelihoods and caused bankruptcies among the business owners, especially the small businessmen. For that reason they established the gamach [The gamach is a charity fund –the gamach box [acts of kindness]. It was established thanks to several individuals who were working to help the public, and through that gamach, help was given to the needy. The Jewish businessmen were stricken by their dire straits. No better than that was the situation of the Jewish butchers, with the introduction of a penalty fee, which was nothing more than a scheme. Those same evil people acting on the pretense of mercy for living creatures shook the Jewish world by forbidding Jewish kosher slaughter, within a few short years were helping Nazis in their actions to murder hundreds of Jews of Dynów.

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1. Religious Services (Rabbis, Judges, Kosher Slaughterers, Mashgiach, Scribe, Cantors, Sexton, Undertaker)	12
2. Professions (Judges, lawyers, engineer, doctors)	6
3. Health Services (Medic, Midwife)	2
4. Children's Hebrew Teachers & Teachers (religion teachers and Hebrew teachers)	12
5. Clerical Services (Accountants, Clerks, Writers)	15
6. Auxiliary Services (Coach services, draymen, porters, dairy workers)	20
7. Craftsmen (tailors, shoemakers, glaziers, watchmakers, barbers and carpenter)	36
8. Butchers and bakers	13
9. Merchants (cattle, horses, wheat, chickens, eggs, fruit)	30
10. Storekeepers (stores for clothing and shoes)	8
11. Kiosk street vendors	5
12. Storekeepers (food stores, sweets and flour)	14
13. Restaurants, hotels and taverns owners	10
14. Shopkeepers for leather goods and linens	20
15. Shops for tools, iron and building supplies	12
16. Shopkeeper for radio receivers	1
17. Farmers	6
18. Factory owners (shoe lasts, sawmill, soft drinks and jam)	5
Total:	227 People

During the Austrian period the number of Jewish landowners in the Galician shtetlach was not insignificant, but with the establishment of Poland, and the increase of anti–Semitic activity many of these landowners were forced out of their villages because of their own insecurity, and also because they wanted their children to have a Jewish education. In that way a new generation of Jewish landowners developed who lived in the cities and their lands were leased out to local farmers. This situation ended with the legislation giving ownership to the village farmers who worked this land and were paying tenancy. From that time on the number of landholders who were Jewish began gradually diminishing until there were very few of them who continued to live in the village, and to work their own land.

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Part E – Lawyers

In this free profession this situation also worsened day by day. In particular in 1937 lawyers lost the right to create contracts for sale of property, and this was taken from lawyers and given to notaries. As a result the livelihood of Jewish lawyers was destroyed because they were facing obstacles, which hermetically blocked jobs for Jewish judges and lawyers. This brought about a weakening of the position of these lawyers. On top of that there was a law that required lawyers to advertise on their business cards and on their shingles their first names as written on their birth certificates and this intensified the boycott against Jews that was going on in those years, in the streets and in the anti–Semitic press.

In 1938 a new criminal law was created (The Law of Grabowski) which blocked Jewish lawyers as new members to The Bar. In the beginning of the 1930s a Jewish judge by the name of Drucker was in charge in the city courthouse, but in a short time he was pushed out of office because of false libel against his reputation. Among the lawyers in Dynów one should mention Dr. David Haupt, who was active in the Zionist movement and in the public organizations in Dynów. We should also remember the name of Bursztyn who converted along with his family. But that didn't help him when the Germans came to Dynów, and his entire family was murdered by the Nazis in the new Jewish cemetery, and that's where they were buried.

A well known and esteemed person among the Jews of Dynów was the doctor named Phillisdorf, who arrived in Dynów from Przemyśl. He was especially devoted to public service in the village, and he was among those that initiated an establishment of a Jewish community center. After he left Dynów a second doctor settled in Dynów, who was originally from Przemyśl by the name of Joshua Intetrer. That doctor was very active in the Zionist movement, and his wife also was an activist in the community center.

When the Germans entered Dynów, the entire family crossed the San, and went to Przemyśl, and remained in the ghetto, where they helped many sick and needy people. However, when it was beyond their ability to carry this burden and once they knew what was in store for them, they poisoned their two daughters, and then they killed themselves.

There was also a dentist Bronengerber, and he was killed the first day the Germans came into town, [which was the second day of Rosh Hashanah].

Dynów had one public school for boys and girls, and the religious teacher who they hired was Chula Shanker, a graduate of the Jewish high school in Przemyśl.

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Part H – Graduates of the Jewish gymnasium in Dynów

Among them were the daughters of the engineer Yaakov Virach. Pesach Fish was a graduate of the Government high school in Dembitz and two sons from the Intetrer family, who were not accepted to medical school, and were planning to travel to Italy for that purpose. Also Muna Goldschmidt was in this group among graduates. University graduates living in Dynów were the following: Frieda Feldstein, who finished the study of law, Leah Brandt who studied medicine in Italy, and who at this time lived in Brazil. Another woman from Dynów, Bilha Baar finished the medical faculty in Bratislava, in Slovakia.

This is the general picture of Jewish life in Dynów in those years. Their lives were like a walk on a narrow rope above the chasm of endless hatred of the Jewish person from his birth until his death.

This hatred found expression through legislation of a criminal type in every area of life, in work, in the skilled professions, intellectual pursuits and in society. But in spite of all this the Jews of Dynów grew smarter, just as the Jews in the other villages did, to stand with a higher strength, to stand up against these waves of hatred, and this they could do because of their loyalty to their faith, and to solidarity that they shared. They succeeded in organizing their public and private lives in a manner that was admired by their non–Jewish neighbors.

But on that bitter and horrible day, the second day of Rosh Hashanah, 1939, the Hebrew year of 5700, the end of the road struck quickly on the holy congregation of Dynów with its tradition of more than 600 years. That day the Jewish blood in Dynów and its surrounding towns poured like water, and the waters of the San River were red from the blood of the martyrs who were murdered by the Nazis with their local partners.

May God avenge the martyrs of Dynów, the innocent, God fearing ones among them giants of the Torah, giants of the spirit, and giants of action.

Their blood cries to us from the earth. We will remember them, and we will keep their memory alive for generations to come so long as we breathe.

In closing, allow me one comment. The Jewish intellectuals in Galicia after the establishment of the Polish republic in WW1 had hopes for equal rights. During the 146 years of servitude, the generations long blood soaked hatred of the Polish Catholic folk has not diminished in their hearts. How great was the disappointment of those young Jewish men and women who absorbed the creative spirit of the Polish poets from the romantic period, and who adopted the powerful spirit of Polish youth fighting against enslavement by the czars. They were disappointed because there was no equality of rights, but denial of rights. No coming together of hearts in

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the spirit of the poet Oz'shkobah Shokuva. Instead there was limitless blind hatred with no end to it.

Instead of the motto ‘For Our Freedom and For Your Freedom’ or the realization of those lives in the constitution of May 3rd. Instead of that came edits, prohibitions, restrictions, like Numerous Clausus separating Jewish university students from the others, with brutal attacks on Jewish students which became a daily event.

And mindlessness became the rule for the Jewish youth who had been thirsty for learning, and also loss of opportunity came in the free professions after acquiring those rights after tough periods both in Poland and outside of Poland before the appearance of Adolf Hitler. Even before Adolf Hitler appeared there was another Hitler, by the name Novachinsky [the first to promulgate laws against the Jews].

Translator's footnotes

1. The White Gang– one of many Jewish social groups. Return
2. Psalms: Those who pass through the valley of tears a well there will nourish them and blessings will envelop them for those who have fear. Return
3. Hebraiska Encyclopedia from Petersburg. Return

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The Author

From the dawn of my youth, I envied those people blessed with the talent to express their thoughts in beautiful words and precise descriptions. As time went on I learned to understand that there are developments and experiences for which human language is impoverished to explain, and only in our eyes our emotions are reflected. And therefore when we stand before phenomena and events of this type, as when seeing the exceptional beauty of nature, or God forbid a great disaster – only silence is fitting for them. This idea guides me as I write about the martyrs of our town. In this way I try to contribute my small portion to memorialize the martyrs of the holocaust. Doubtlessly, this will be only a pale shadow and a faint echo of that bitter hurt, which we feel in our hearts.

In my research for the origins of the name of our town, I found that its original name was Dynowo, a Slavic word (the early Polish language still had not been developed), and the meaning of Dynowo is “anew”. The buildings of Dynów were built for the most part of wood and the city was burnt to utter destruction during the battles against The Teutonic Knights in the beginning of the 15^th century. The name of the town was given by the king of Poland, Władysława Jagiełły of the Jagellonian Dynasty, who also contributed to rebuilding the village. His statue stood in the central market square, until the beginning of the Second World War.

I wish to devote a few lines to the geography and topography of our town. Dynów lies between the cities Przemyśl, Sanok and Rzeszów in the region called Małopolskie (Little Poland). In the 19^th century this region was ruled by the Austrian monarchy. They called it “Galicia”. The landscape where our town lies is breathtakingly picturesque. To

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describe its beauty the skill of a poet is needed. It is surrounded by forested mountains and hills, amongst them the “Łubno” mountain (“Der Lybner Barg” [Yid.]) and the “Jewish mountain”. The children of Dynow used to go on outings to this mountain on Lag BaOmer, to celebrate the day with “bow and arrows”. According to legend, strange and wondrous miracles happened in this place: if, for instance, someone found something on the mountain, until he reached home it would disappear – like a “fata morgana”. The “Żurawiec mountain”, which was forested with beech trees and triangular nuts, was a special pleasure for those going on walks on Saturdays (to the sorrow of our hearts, in this forest 275 Jews were butchered by the Nazis, among them 185 from the town), and at its base we see, as in a mirror, the crystal–clear waters of the river San. I should note here about the belief that prevailed among the residents of Dynow, that this river required throughout the year its drowning victims. And it happened that one of the victims who drowned there was a son of the famous Rebbe of Dynow, and then the Rebbe cursed the river. As consequence of this curse the river San shrunk to the width of a few tens of meters whereas before it was more than a kilometer wide.

The climate of the region was healthy and good and outstanding in every season of the year, in its special beauty. In the Spring – with its fresh and intoxicating air, the special, pleasant fragrance of the lilac, the chestnuts and the diverse fruit trees in bloom; the colors of the different flowers, which sprouted immediately when the snow thawed, snowdrops, violets and others. It is impossible to describe how beautiful this was. The fruits that grew in the forest as well – blueberries, wild–strawberries and mushrooms – who could describe their color, their fragrance and their taste?

The green fields, the shining sunrays and the birdsong, and especially that of the nightingale, instilled an atmosphere of Paradise on earth. The temperate summer climate was pleasant. The ripe wheat in the fields – reached a height that a man could hide in it. The harvest and the smell of the grain filled the fields. Bathing in the river “San” attracted everyone in town, after a day of work.

In the fall, the walks in the fields turned man into someone with religious feeling, for its beauty was truly godly. The smell of the straw was so strong that people were afraid to doze on fresh straw for fear they might never awaken due to the strong and intoxicating aroma. The roads and the fields were covered by autumn leaves as if with a carpet, in a variety of colors and shades that no artist could imitate their splendor and beauty.

The winter – with its snow covered roads – the children, and the adults as well, busied themselves making snowmen, played diverse snow games and engaged in winter sports, such as skis, ice–skates, and handsleds for sliding from the hills, or harnessed to horses with tiny bells, which ring pleasantly. All this enriched the variety of the inhabitants' recreations.

The village itself, built in the typical style of the cities of Galicia, with a main street, that although it had an official name, the Jews referred to it as “The King's Road” (Der Kaiserweg). They did not use the official street–names at all, but different nicknames, like: “Under the Rampart”, “Under the Gate”. Here, they probably alluded to a gate that once stood and which served to collect toll from the farmers and merchants, who came on fair–days

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“Jagiełły” monument in town

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Personalities and family branches

The townspeople themselves were also not always called by their surnames by nicknames – due to different reasons. For instance: after the name of the town the person came to Dynow from, like Mendel “Dubitsker” [Dubiecko], Shie “Kietziker”, Aharon “Hutter”, “Fehrchinger from Wesoła”, the “Kontziger” [Kańczuga], “Dikler” [Dukla], “Linsker” [Lesko]. Other were named after their profession – Feivel “Stuler” (carpenter), Moishele “Schneider” [tailor], Nechemele “Bäcker” [baker], Shie “Roife” (nurse or medic), Leibish “Friseur” (barber). There were also some nicknamed after a man or woman in their family. Not everyone in town knew who they were, for example, Reb Yoshe Spatz, may God avenge his blood, a hearty and honest Jew, fair and easy–going, without extra money. He was known as Yoshe Frimet's – his wife Frimet who helped him with his livelihood, enterprising and with a heart of gold, which is probably the reason they called her husband after her; or Leibish and Itche “Kreindel's”, Leah “Moishele's” (the wife of Moishele Gimpel, may God avenge his blood, a tailor by trade, who would always go humming cantors' tunes. He had an outstanding sense of humor and would joke: “Although I buy cheap cigarettes, “thins”, I smoke “flats”, which are expensive. And how so? I simply sit on them and turn them into “flats”). Moishele's brother was a writer for the “Forverts” [The Jewish Daily Forward], the Yiddish newspaper in New York, and used to write humorously. Also are known the nicknames of “Chaya Rozle's”, “Chanale Duvidl's”, “Beila Pintzi's” etc. etc.

The author's parents

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derived from my “oitzer” [my treasure] that their grandmother called her grandson many generations before; a broad family of butchers, named Neger, who everyone called “die chmares” (“the clouds”) – the reason being that their grandfather, Chaim–Aharon, whose mother called affectionately “my Chaimarele”, which sounds like “chmarele” and means little cloud in Polish. In this family Reb Mendel Neger especially stood out, who was renowned for his kind–heartedness and anonymous donations to the needy.

Perhaps it is important to note, that in Dynow construction with timber continued until the First World War. This is also the reason for the frequent fires that broke out there. Reb Duvid Turner's saying is well–known: “It is difficult to find a nice shirt to wear on Shabbes to go to prayer service at the synagogue, but when they shout “fire” (“es brent” [it's burning]) – there is no end to all the baskets and the crates and the packages, that are pulled out of the houses in danger.” Another saying is attributed to Reb Duvid: a sack of grain is like a maiden, a sack of flour is like a divorcee and baked bread – is like a dead person…Speaking of sayings, I should mention my mother Dinale Schnek z”l, an eishes chayil [a virtuous woman, Proverbs 31:10] who was widowed at a young age and never remarried, but devoted her whole life to bringing up her two children (myself and my sister Miriam). A woman devoted to her children, to the traditions of our people and who despite her limited means of existence (a pension as the widow of a disabled veteran), found the possibility to give charity to the poor as well as helping the sick by taking care of them. A witty and intelligent woman, held in high esteem by all Dynow residents, who also were helped by her wise advice. One of her famous sayings: The parents teach the children how to talk, and the children teach the parents how to remain silent…

Let us also mention an interesting Jew named Reb Elyukim Weintraub, who was a genius in mathematics. If, for example, you were to ask him in the month of Tamuz how many minutes remained until the festival of Pesach [9 months apart] – his answer was incredibly accurate, as that of a complex electronic computer, and this just in a few minutes. When he left Dynow and went to live in Krakow – he gained fame there lecturing to students of Economics.

Having mentioned economics, I shall dedicate a few lines to the economy of Dynow. The livelihood of the town's Jews was based mainly on crafts, and especially the manufacture of clothing and shoes, which were produced manually and by foot–operated sewing machines. The majority of the trade was minuscule, except for a few large merchants who dealt in exports: eggs, fruit, grain, cattle and timber.

And as regards industry: there was a shoemaker's lasts factory named “Model”, which belonged to a warm–hearted and famously charitable Jew, Mr. Becher z”l, may God avenge his blood, who was also one of the members of the board of directors of the Jewish bank led by Reb Eluzor Frenkel z”l, may God avenge his blood – a distinct Torah scholar and sought after as arbitrator by the members of our community.

In Dynow there were two flour mills; one electric power–station which in the last days passed to Polish hands. It only provided electricity for lighting, and only in the evening hours.

The sawmill was of Jewish ownership, the trees for the sawmill were provided from the forests surrounding the town; from there were also provided trees for heating in the winter.

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In the villages surrounding the town, the Jewish inhabitants worked in agriculture, exactly like their Polish neighbors.

In our town a fair was held every Thursday. The marketplace was filled in the early morning hours with hundreds of horse–drawn wagons with agricultural produce. The townspeople bought the fresh fruits and vegetables, and later the farmers bought, with the money they had received for their produce, clothes, shoes, sewing wares, smithy goods, groceries etc. at the Jewish shops. On the same day cattle deals were struck in the market specific to that purpose. From this trade many of the Jews in town made their livelihoods.

In Dynow everyone knew everybody else – like one large family. There were wealthy families and poor folk as well. No one went hungry or was dressed in rags. There was a charity fund which lent money without interest. On Saturdays there were always poor guests invited for meals at the Dynow tables, who wandered with their families on horse–drawn carts, the great majority being from central Poland. The hospitality was a trademark of the town's Jews. My melamed [teacher at religious school for boys], Reb Mordche Eile, especially stood out in this, who was diligent both in Torah and work, for while he taught the children Torah, he also occupied himself with craftsmanship – repairing broken pottery, by wrapping them with a net of stainless iron wire. At his house there always stayed around thirty people, free of charge, and also received morning and evening meals, which were prepared with charity money that he collected for them. He himself was not wealthy at all…

Having mentioned melamdim [plural], I shall also mention my kindergarten teacher, Reb Duvid Talmud, “der Linsker melamed” from Lesko. I was three years old when my mother z”l took me for the first time to Reb Duvid's “cheider” [religious school for boys]. He was by then an old Jew. And being as he was short–sighted, when teaching the alphabet, he came near the sider [prayer–book] with his long beard, thus hiding the letters and I did not see anything.

To complete the picture of the Dynow melamdim (there were about ten) – I wish to dedicate a number of lines to my teacher and master [i.e. distinct Rabbi], Reb Moishe Luzor Feldstein z”l, may God avenge his blood, who was the exact opposite of all the other melamdim in town. Of medium height and slender build, with a majestic countenance and a well–groomed beard and his eyes those of a scholar. Always neatly dressed, his voice quiet and pleasant. And despite his peaceful speech, his presence commanded authority, which in his pupils inspired dread and fear. Unlike the other melamdim, who competed against each other in the hunt for pupils (a melamed's livelihood was always meagre), it was difficult to be accepted as a pupil in Reb Moshe Luzor's cheider. The condition for admission was not only the pupil's academic level, but his appearance and behavior as well, at home, in the street and at prayer. It was his duty to remember that he represented the “cheider” in the attic, and to act appropriately. The schooling fees here were also higher than with the other melamdim.

The age of his pupils started at 10. With him we learnt apart from Torah, Prophets and Writings, also Talmud and dictation

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in Yiddish. The order and discipline at the cheider were almost like in the army, the learning hours were accurate and woe to the pupil who was late without a good reason.

Even in the Rebbe's [traditionally, pupils at a cheider call their teacher “Rebbe”] absence from the cheider – for example, when he went down to his apartment for a short rest – order was maintained by the eldest of the pupils. The pupil who disturbed the order was noted down and punished.

On the discipline at the “cheider” perhaps an amusing curiosity may bear testimony: one of the pupils, Abba Nais z”l, may God avenge his blood, had one of his peyes [sidelocks] accidentally cut off by the barber. His father tied a handkerchief around his face, as is done by those suffering from toothache, and did not remove it for about two months, despite the heavy summer heat, until his peye grew back [fearing his son would not be allowed to continue studying at the cheider without it].

The Rebbe knew the Torah, Prophets and Writings by heart. He also taught Mishna to an adult group at the Kloiz [privately owned study–hall], where he attended prayers. On Fridays evenings, after the prayer service, it was the pupils' obligation to go to the Kloiz and wish the Rebbe a “Good Shabbes”. The books of Esther and Ruth, we too, the pupils, knew by heart. When reaching parshas [weekly Torah section] Vayechi [Genesis 47:28–50:26], the verse “And as for me…” [Genesis 48:7] read in the Rebbe's sentimental voice gave the pupils goosebumps, for the rendering had to be perfect, including the tune.

On Saturday afternoons we would come to study Pirkei Uves [Avot; Chapters of the Fathers, is a compilation of the ethical teachings and maxims passed down to the Rabbis].

My mother z”l told me: when she brought me food to the “cheider”, she would stop on the stairs, to hear and enjoy the melodies emanating from the room [the Talmud and other religious books are traditionally studied out loud, in a sing–song manner].

Reb Moishe Luzor also wrote poetry in Yiddish and Hebrew; he also composed lyrical texts for the tombstones of the deceased. The Rebbe gave his [own] children a high education. His daughter studied Law and Philosophy.

If the word “cheider” was symbolic of noise, chaos and disorder, Reb Moishe Luzor's cheider could serve as an educational example – in opposition to the said thesis.

In the town there was no Jewish child who did not learn in “cheider”, or who did not finish the public school of seven grades. Children, whose parents could not afford the schooling fees, attended “Talmud Toire” [Talmudic term for “cheider”. “Cheider”, albeit a Hebrew word, is a Yiddish term] free of charge. In Dynow there was also a business school and a school for the study of the Hebrew language. The cultural life of the Jews was highly developed. We had a House of Culture, “The House of the People” – a large building built with red bricks, with a stage for theatrical performances. Surrounding it were sports courts, as for tennis and volleyball. The sport activities took place daily, and sometimes matches were held between Jewish and Polish teams, which sparked a great interest among the sports fans. At The House of the People diverse lectures were also given and the auditorium was always full with listeners.

By initiative of Leibik Baum and his friend Oizer Grunes a youth society was founded for visiting the sick. The dedication of its members saved quite a few lives. And speaking of the Baum family – we can add and mention, that the singing emanating from their sykke [sukkah] during the festival [of Sukkos], brought long queues of listeners, who stood outside, including many Gentiles. The singing voices sounded then as if not of this world…

The Zionist movement, in all its factions, both the secular and the religious, educated the youth, whose longing

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for the land of Israel was very strong. From its rows there came to Israel, already in the 1920's, men and women pioneers, who left their wealthy parents and worked in Israel building roads and in all the other menial occupations.

In Dynow there were three houses of prayer: the study–hall, the Great Synagogue and the “Kloiz”. Next to each synagogue there were also separate prayer rooms for the butchers and craftsmen.

The study–hall was open day and night and scholars sat in it, studying Torah and praying. One of the permanent scholars was my grandfather, Reb Burech son of Duvid Chajes, called by the residents of Dynow with the affectionate nickname “Mudye”. He never forewent the daily tvile [submersion] in the mikve [ritual bath for purification before praying and studying Torah], and even if the mikve was under repairs, and even in the winter, even then he did not relinquish the tvile. He went to the river San, which was frozen, and with the help of an axe broke [the ice] and fulfilled the mitzve [precept] of tvile. He was a very patient man. The extent of his tolerant character is shown by this story, which I heard from Mrs. Hoch z”l: it once happened that my grandmother served her family the tshulent [traditional Jewish stew eaten for lunch on Saturday]. Grandfather attempted biting from the meat, but was unable to, so then grandmother suggested he use a knife but this too was to no avail. Grandmother inspected further and discovered that it was not meat at all, but a rag for drying the dishes, that had fallen into the stew. But even this circumstance was not enough to anger grandfather. He did not know the meaning of anger. It would seem that he belonged to The House of Hillel [1^st century rabbinical school famous for being humble and gentle] … And Mrs. Hoch also told me: when my grandfather came to visit her father, he would stand up for him, as is written: “Stand before a scholar” [see Talmud Bavli, Kiddushin, 32b] …

The synagogue (the “Shil”): a magnificent building circular in shape with descending stairs. At the center of the synagogue there stood columns surrounding the altar, on which the Torah [scroll] was read. Above the columns was a vaulted dome. The ceiling and walls were covered with wonderful oil paintings.

At the “Kloiz”, apart from prayers, lessons in Torah [all Jewish religious books are generally referred to as “Torah”, not necessarily just the Pentateuch] were given.

At the synagogues, besides prayer services, there were also sermons given by preachers from out–of–town as well as by those from within Dynow. Also, sometimes there were performed there the plays “Purim Spiel” [comic dramatization of the Book of Esther] and “Yankev VeYosef Spiel” [Jacob and Joseph Play; a dramatization of the selling of Joseph by his brothers to Egypt]. Next to the Great Synagogue the chyppes [chuppas for weddings] were erected.

There was an old tradition that at the study–hall would congregate the young 20 year–old young men who were to present themselves for a physical check–up before being drafted to the Polish army. Some weeks before the appointed date, the youths would spend entire nights, almost without sleep, playing pranks, such as changing signs – from the pharmacy to the shoe–shop or transporting stone steps, which weighed around a ton, from one end of the town to the other, and the like. They would also collect food and drink from the Jewish townspeople and hold banquets and games at the study–hall.

The older generation was mostly very religious. From Dynow emerged a famous Rabbinical dynasty. When I was 8 or 9, on Simches Toire [Simchat Torah; at the end of the festival of Sukkos], we prayed in the butchers' room that was next to the Great Synagogue. I was called to the Torah [scroll] and the reader was Reb Mendele Lubczer z”l,

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The crowd celebrating the opening of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem in front of “The Shil” house of prayer

[Page 38] a Jew with a pleasant appearance, a blacksmith by trade, who was renowned as an excellent craftsman and who was involved in public works. When my father Leibish Schnek z”l was alive, Reb Mendele was active with him in the “Yad Charutzim” [Arm of the Industrious; a Jewish workers' union]. So, the section he was reading on that day was parshas “vayedaber” [non–existent; should say “Bamidbar” (Numbers 1:1–4:20)]. Reb Mendele asked me what the difference is between “And the Lord [Yahweh in the Hebrew original]” spoke unto Moses and “And God [Elohim] spoke”. My answer was that Yahweh is the Attribute of Mercy, whereas Elohim is the Attribute of Justice. And Reb Mendele literally shone with joy.

Group of young Zionist pioneers in Dynow, 1931 From right: Israel Ya'ari, Esther Rosenberg, Yitzchak Kasse, Rachel Frenkel, Yaakov Chail and Itta Weinik

Natan Lahav z”l, the son of Mendele, who passed away this year, emigrated to Israel together with other youths from Dynow. Here [in Israel] he climbed the public ladder and was appointed by his own merit to a lofty position in his party as technical secretary. He was also active in the Ministry of Absorption during the Great Emigration of the 1950's. It should be said to his credit that he never forgot his roots, and anyone from Dynow who turned to him could be sure that it wouldn't be just a “voice of him that crieth in the wilderness” [Isaiah 40:3] (as the saying goes: “The apple does not fall far from the tree” …) and that he would give him his attention and limitless help in finding work or an apartment. May his memory be blessed.

All factions of the Zionist movement in Dynow taught the love of the Land [of Israel], and some of its trainees achieved important positions in the movement, such as Yaakov Chail z”l, who first traveled from Dynow to Lvov, and there was active in the “HaChalutz” [The Pioneer] center. After emigrating to Israel he became a kibbutz member and afterwards served as the national manager

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of the technical department of the “HaMashbir HaMerkazi” [a cooperative society for the supply of goods, without profit, to Jewish workers in Palestine]. The man, whom I knew well, abided by socialistic principles.

In Dynow, many Jewish young men were distinguished in the Communist Party, who constituted its intelligentsia. They believed that they were fighting for the rights of all human beings. One of them was my crafts–master, with whom I learned tailoring, Moishe Duvid Jager z”l, who was imprisoned before the World War, due to the ideology he believed in, and during the war he fought bravely as a partisan against the Nazis, and was killed with a weapon in his hands, having the rank of coronel. There is a street in Lublin named after him.

The Poles were by their nature, essence and deeds, anti–Semitic.

The Polish nation found in the Jewish minority an easy focus–point for the pathological need to hate. The intelligentsia particularly distinguished itself with its beast–like hatred of Jews. For example, my educator at school, Professor Baylewski, with whom I was very popular, put his hand under my chin and asked cynically: Correct? Is it forbidden to beat Jews? We, the pupils, loved Poland, its history and heroes, and this is despite the fact that from the trilogy by its greatest writer, Sienkiewicz, it is possible to learn the dubious nature of the Polish heroes, such as Zagloba [Pan] Wolodyjowski [fictional character], whose main heroism was expressed by drunkenness and killings. The love of the Jews for Poland was repelled by them…

Despite the almost–hearty relations that prevailed between Polish and Jewish neighbors, who lived house next to house, still the hatred also stood out. For instance: My uncle Shmiel Chajes had a Gentile neighbor named Manik Kandzerski and not a day passed by without him visiting my uncle. He liked to show his dog's “intelligence” by asking it: “How do you like Jews?” And the dog's response – wild barking and frenzy, that truly showed its owner's hatred of Jews. The image of a Jew, in the eyes of many Poles, served since forever, as a target for ridicule and insult, such as “cowardly in the army” (despite the decorations of heroism that Jewish fighters received for their courage in battle), cheater, swindler, usurer and the like. And for the indigent Gentiles the Jews were the direct cause of their failure in life. The famous Polish saying: “In times of trouble – a Jew” – its simple meaning was that “the Jews are to blame for everything”. But there was also another meaning: when in trouble, turn to a Jew for a loan (which were often not repaid), which was also not said from sympathy to Jews… The lives of Jews in times of financial or political crises were always in danger of a pogrom or acts of robbery, rape and looting. The Gentile never remembered the good he received from a Jew. They always saw in him the cause of all evil. Their prayer and strongest yearning was: “Poland without Jews”.

In 1933 the Nazi party ascended to power in Germany, its venomous slogans against the Jews were accepted with joy and admiration by the anti–Semitic Polish ear. And from slogans to actions the road is short – blood libels and a pogrom on the Jews of Przytyk [March 9,1936; prior to the invasion of Poland]. Also, the proposal of Mrs. [Janina] Prystor [wife of Aleksander Prystor, 23^rd Prime Minister of Poland] to ban Jewish Kosher slaughter, for humanitarian reasons, as it were,

[Page 40]

(the slaughter of the Jews by the Germans not only did not awaken humanitarian sentiments with the Poles, but also found in them enthusiastic collaborators), contributed to the creation of convenient conditions for the rise in hatred against the Jews.

In this atmosphere of hate, the Polish organization for the economic boycott of Jews also geminated. In the 1930's, Gentile business cooperatives were established. The aim was to take it away from Jewish hands. When it turned out that these shops did not attract the Polish farmer, despite attempting to provide the merchandise for a competitive price, because there he was not able to negotiate and receive on credit – they began to stand on guard (“pickets”) in front of the Jewish shops, with clubs in their hands, and they forcefully prevented the entry of customers.

Regarding the governmental “initiative” – no Jew was appointed for a government position; admittance to higher–education institutions was limited by quota; Jewish students had to sit in separate areas in the lecture halls, in the back seats, in a sort of ghetto. We remember well Fredra street in Lvov, where Jewish students were beaten by their Polish classmates.

It is not by chance that Poland was chosen as the place for the extermination of European Jewry. The Nazi oppressor knew well the Polish spirit, who sweetened their drinks with sugar when the Germans invaded their land, which was given to them by the Gestapo in return for revealing the hiding places of Jews. The percentage of Poles who saved Jewish lives was [practically] inexistent.

The fact that tens of thousands [an estimated 1.8 to 2.77 million non–Jewish ethnic Poles] of Poles were also exterminated by the Germans, did not cause them to forget the feelings of gratitude towards the Nazi oppressor, for having rid Poland of its Jews. To “complete” what the Nazis had not been able to – in the town Kielce, in 1946, they carried out a mass murder on Jews who had just returned from Russia.

On the second week of the German invasion of Poland, our town was conquered. On this week fell Rosh Hashanah. In the Jewish streets prevailed fear and uncertainty as to the future. The surroundings were hostile to us and the plans of the Nazis were well–known to Polish Jewry. The hope and illusions turned into despair and helplessness. The Jewish refugees from the vicinity also contributed to increasing the stress (the Jews of Dynow received with open arms the thousands of refugees from Krosno, Sanok, Brzozów and their surrounding areas). The looks on the Poles' faces did not forebode any good. The atmosphere was electrified. We did not know what to do. There was nowhere to flee to.

On Thursday, which was the first day of Rosh Hashanah, the S.S and Gestapo arrived in Dynow and on the same day they surrounded the Great Synagogue during the evening prayer service. The worshipers began to flee but not all were able to. Then were shot to death – my colleague at work, Yosele Rogel, Yisruel Feldstein, Yankev Rein, Shie Wilk, may God avenge their blood. They were shot in their legs and thrown alive into the flames of the burning Synagogue. On the morrow, Friday morning, the second day of Rosh Hashanah, the Nazis gathered around 275 Jews, amongst them around 185 of the Dynow Jews, in the marketplace, where they abused them, to the glee of the Gentiles, and afterwards took them to the school

[Page 41]

and from there to the Zurawiec forest. There they were shot to death. Those who attempted to escape, such as my friend Duvid Reichman z”l and his uncle, were brought to the churchyard and shot there.

I will not attempt to describe grief and bereavement that prevailed in our town. There were families that various of their members had been executed, such as my aunt Zipporah Koenig z”l, who that day lost her husband, my uncle Reb Chaim, her son, my cousin Lipa, and her son–in–law Yisruel Landberg, may God avenge their blood. And she was not the only one. Widows and orphans were left. The men who remained alive feared going into the streets and hid in attics and basements. There was no safe place of shelter. Rumors followed rumors. Yissuchor Grinbaum tells, that the day after the massacre, on Saturday morning, he passed the house of Ziporale Koenig, and she came to him with the rumor that they were capturing Jews again, she took him into her house and concealed him in the bed under a pile of blankets. After some time, it turned out that it had been a false alarm.

Speaking of my uncle Reb Chaim Koenig z”l, it is fitting to mention his kindheartedness and deep faith: when present as I rendered “The Song of Songs” his eyes streamed with tears, and this due to two reasons – one emotional–religious and the other because I was orphaned by my father z”l.

From the moment the Nazis entered Dynow – the Jews' lives were up for grabs. The Gentiles exploited this situation very much. As mayor was appointed the Volksdeutsche [ethnic German, in Nazi terminology] Padkewicz, may his name be obliterated. He proved, as indeed he had promised beforehand, that he knew well “how to control the Jews”. They organized a “collection for charity”, as it where, and this was just an overt and legal robbery… this oppressor, together with the priest Smietana, signed a document ordering the execution of the Jews and their deportation.

I was personally near death three times: the first time, on the day of the massacre, I left my house, a moment before the Gestapo men came inside and took from it my uncle Yehide Schnitzler, may God avenge his blood. The second time, when the Germans found a sack of flour under a pile of empty beer bottles, in Reb Mendzi Frenkel's storeroom. They attributed the concealing to my brother–in–law Leibish Nadel, who had a bakery in the same house. In place of my brother–in–law, who was absent, I was presented as the bakery owner and they were about to shoot me. But thanks to my mother, who succeeded in proving that I was too young to own a bakery, I escaped with just a murderous beating. a third event occurred, when an officer ordered 200 loaves of bread for the German army. In the meantime, another officer came and took the bread, and although we presented a receipt, they were about to shoot me and my mother. We managed to evade them cunningly, by saying that first we intended to get dressed. We escaped through the attics in the marketplace and were thus miraculously saved.

Immediately after Yom Kippur a command was given that the Jews were to present themselves until 10 a.m. with a quarter of a kilogram [8.8 oz.] of bread [each]. The warned us that whoever did not present himself – would be executed. Being as the river San was designated as the boundary between Germany and Russia, following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, I decided to precede my escape and not wait for the deportation. And thus we left, a group of 20 men, in it also Mendzi and Luzor Frenkel. We crossed the river San by foot.

From accounts I later heard from my relatives, I learned shocking facts about the expulsion. It seemed to me that the descriptions were taken from Dante's “Inferno”. The Germans

[Page 42]

drove the Jews in the river's direction, without telling them their intentions. Everyone was convinced that they were being taken to be executed. The Germans strengthened their suspicion by firing shots in the air. The cries among those being led reached the sky and people threw themselves on the ground. The crying of the children and the women's hysteria caused horror and the thought that all was finished and no mercy was to be found. The cry of “From whence cometh my help?” [Psalm 121] went unanswered even for those who knew the verse “Out of the depths I have cried to You, O Lord” [Psalm 130]. On the one hand – terrible feelings of depression and humiliation; on the other – the looks of delight on the Poles' faces, who saw the expulsion with their own eyes. Here is the place to mention that the Polish woman Nowkowa also stood there on the occasion but her eyes streamed with tears.

When the lines of people reached the river – the Germans forced the men to cross on foot, though they carried the women and children across on a ferry. Thus, effectually, the Jewish settlement in Dynow ceased to exist.

In Dynow, a Pole, whose name was Sarabowski, saved one of the three Reich sisters, named Tamara. When the Germans left the town and she went out to the street, the Poles slaughtered her and threw her body into a well. Another instance – Bertchie Krantz z”l, who was able to escape the Germans and returned to Dynow, was murdered there in cold blood. The same fate was shared by the daughter of the judge Reb Abramtche Shor, Feigele, who hid together with the son of Reb Burech Metz z”l in the woods, and when they both came in the darkness of the night to ask for food, were murdered by the Pole Tuczek.

The wanderings of the Dynow Jews, as those of the rest of the Jews of the towns on the banks of the river San, or near the border, began. A part of those deported were deported a second time by the Russian government to the Siberian steppes. Tens of thousands died there of malnutrition, hard labour and diseases. Those who remained inside Poland, on the Russian side, until 1941, fell again into the hands of the Germans. The majority were placed in extermination camps and only a handful survived.

For many generations the Jews lived in Poland, they contributed to its development in all areas. But the Poles never admitted this. The writers, who wrote about us sympathetically, can be counted on the fingers of one hand. In the Polish history, which is taught in schools, we are hardly mentioned.

The magnificent Jewish settlement was completely erased from the map of Poland. Therefore, as I said above, as much as I would attempt to describe our agony – I would not succeed. May this be but a faint echo of the feelings that we sense.

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“My dear friend, Itchale, whose place of burial is unknown”

One of the first days of May, in the afternoon hours: the main street was full of people. Just then, the Christians were emerging from their church, after the “Majówka” [Polish national holiday], to the sound of Potoczny's trumpet. The pleasant fragrance coming from the lilac and chestnut trees was really intoxicating. The peace all around and the flowers in the people's hands, made for a festive air. On the parallel street, in their one–story house next to the market square, lived the Fisch family. In the front garden sat the eldest son, the high–school pupil Pesach z”l, and played chess with his friends. From inside the house came the strains of a violin. The player was the younger son, my dear friend Itchale z”l. It is difficult for me to describe how handsome this lad was. It may be said, that from his appearance he could have served as a model for a statue of Apollo. His average height gave him the look of a youngster, but his athletic build, his graceful stance, and the head of classical beauty – in all this he resembled a statue. In his outstanding talent for art, he covered the walls of his house with paintings of artistic value. All this caused him to be spoiled, not only by his family, but by all around him, as if he was everyone's youngest child. As was customary in our town, he too had a nickname – “Kitten”.

From his love for nature and beauty he had in the house's yard, apart from a dovecote, also a coop with a brooding hen, and the chicks filled the house with their chirps. Among the chicks there grew a rooster, very sensitive to my friend Itchale's playing. I exaggerate not if I say that the rooster, incredibly well–groomed, would seem to dance to the violin music. And it happened that the rooster was injured in a “fight” and died. Itchale held for it an almost ceremonial burial.

Fate had it, that Itchale himself was not brought to a Jewish grave. On the first week of the invasion of our town by the Nazis 275 Jews were executed, amongst them Itchale's father and brother. I met him himself after the deportation of the Dynow Jews, in Bircza, and since then I have not seen him.

My dear friend died with the rest of our martyrs and the location of his grave is unknown.

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