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From the very beginning – perhaps already in the time of the Wiesiołowskis, and certainly by the time of Czarniecki – a separate, enclosed quarter, a revir or ghetto, was designated for the Jewish population of Białystok. All royal cities had the right to confine Jews to a separate district, and every nobleman certainly possessed the power to do so in his own town, where he ruled as sole authority.

Even today, we retain a vivid image of that early, long-vanished ghetto:

The enclosed quarter – once surrounding the entire old shtetl with its narrow, timeworn lanes and small wooden houses – can now be entered only from one side of today's Kościuszko Street (formerly Bazarna Street). Many of those houses have since been replaced by brick buildings. The alleys were much shorter than they are today; we must assume that among the five gates the old city of Białystok once had, one stood at the entrance to what is now Kościuszko Street, opening directly onto the shulhoyf [synagogue courtyard]. Even today, we can still enter that enclosed quarter – but only through a private house on Tiktin [Tykocin] Street, without it, the way in is barred.

At the center of that quarter – once quite small – stood the shulhoyf, and at its heart, the large, stone-built shul [synagogue]. Facing it, on one side, stood the masonry Old Bes-Medresh [house of study], bearing an inscription from the year 5478 [1718]; on the other side stood the New Bes-Medresh.

Close to the shul, one would have found – on one side – the communal bathhouse with its mikve, and on the other, the old Talmud Torah school. A bit further south of the shul stood the hekdesh [charitable shelter], along with the old bes-oylem [cemetery], which, by that time, already lay outside the quarter, beyond the city limits – as was customary for all cemeteries – and marked the boundary of the Jewish quarter, or ghetto.

The open passage from the shulhoyf to the forest – visible today – was created several decades ago, still within my lifetime.

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Until then, the small Jewish quarter had been completely enclosed. All the surrounding streets were added later. Even today, a few narrow, modest, and rather grimy alleys in the southern corner of the shulhoyf – known as the bod-geslekh [bathhouse alleys] – still reflect the character of the old ghetto in Białystok.

The fact that the Branickis – especially Jan Klemens Branicki – had already opened the Jewish ghetto in Białystok, dispersed the Jews throughout the city, and, in 1763, even built more than two dozen shops for their trade in the eastern part of the city center, demonstrates that Jews had long been living in all districts of the city.

As A. K. Holsche notes, by the Prussian period in 1800, the majority of houses in Białystok already belonged to Jews.

As we've seen, the Jewish population of Białystok – even under Russian rule – continued to make up two-thirds of the city's residents, up until after the First World War.

Yet when it comes to the inner life of the Białystok ghetto – its communal politics, chevras [societies and associations], social fabric, and family life – we lack reliable sources.

The old Białystoker Pinkas HaKahal [ledger of the Jewish community], referenced in other sources^[1] and believed to have contained materials on the subject, has unfortunately been lost. We must therefore rely on the secondary pinkasim of the shul, the bote-medroshim [study houses], and the religious and philanthropic societies.

Yet even among these, one principal pinkas is missing: the Pinkas of the Chevra Kadisha [sacred society, burial society], which existed in all old Jewish communities. Even the old gravestones are lacking here. The oldest gravestone in the old Jewish cemetery dates to the year 5534 [1774] – that is, 160 years ago – as the earlier ones have faded and worn away.

In any case, Białystok had no cemetery of its own during its first hundred years; it appears that the deceased were buried in neighboring towns–larger and older ones. Still, the surviving pinkasim do offer us a picture of Jewish religious life in that era.

For Jews, religion fulfilled the need for a territory of their own. As the Talmud says: Bekhol makom she-galu Yisrael, galta ha-Shekhinah imahem [“Wherever Israel was exiled, the Divine Presence^[b] was exiled with them ”] (Megillah 29a). Jewish life in exile became concentrated in religion, in the shul and in the bes-medresh [study house].

Author's footnotes:

1. In the pinkas of an old bes-medresh, the Pinkas HaKalal is mentioned in the following years: 1730 (ת”צ), 1734 (תצ”ד), 1804 (תקס”ד), and 1814 (תקע”ד). Return

1. Contents in [ ] are from the translator. Return
2. In Jewish mysticism, Shekhinah traditionally denotes God's indwelling presence and is often understood as the feminine aspect of the divine. Return

The oldest and most important document of religious life in the old Jewish community of Białystok is the Pinkas [communal ledger] of the so-called Old Bes-Medresh^[c] in the shulhoyf [synagogue courtyard]. Above its bimah, there is a Hebrew inscription stating that the bes-medresh [study house] was built in the year 5478 – that is, 1718^[1].

This period marks the beginning of the reign of Jan Klemens II in Białystok. By that time, Białystok already had a Jewish community with a study house and a Pinkas HaKalal [communal ledger].

In this pinkas, the elections of gaboim^[d] were recorded, chosen by borerim [appointed arbiters, electoral committee] during the intermediate days of Passover, from the years 5478–5479 [1718–1719] until 5662–5663 [1902–1903].

This particular pinkas contains only matters pertaining to the study house, yet at that time, the entire religious and intellectual life of Białystok's Jews was concentrated within it – beginning in the year 5478 [1718] and onward. This is further evidenced by other pinkasim of religious chevras [societies], from which we present selected excerpts. What follows is a brief selection that reflects the full scope of Jewish communal life in that era^[2].

The central role in the city's sole bes-medresh at that time was played by the Chevra Ner-Tamid, which had been founded within the study house itself. The primary purpose of the chevra was to maintain “our bes-medresh” – the Great Bes-Medresh – and later the Bes-Medresh Chomah Gadol – covering all its needs: providing wood for heating, candles for illumination, and wages for the maggid meisharim – the preacher of divrei Elohim chayim [words of the living G'd], who taught Torah in the bes-medresh. For this reason, the society also called itself Chevra Kadisha Machzikei Torah [Sacred Society of Torah Sustainers], as explicitly noted in the pinkas (fol. 15b; 27a).

Anyone who wishes to join the society is required to provide an advance payment. The entry fee has to include at least one adom zahav (a gold ducat, also known as a rendl) and one shteyn of khalev (a standardized block of tallow)

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for the study house. No discount is granted under any circumstances, regardless of who the applicant may be. If the applicant is unable to pay the full amount immediately, as required by the chevra's regulations, the society may, at its discretion, grant him a deferment for a specified period (as recorded in the pinkas, fol. 15b).

It is further recorded in the pinkas that this regulation must be upheld in full, without diminution, for all generations, in perpetuity (ibid., fol. 15b).

When someone wishes to join the chevra, the gaboim must convene a meeting of all members^[e]. If the majority agrees, the gaboim and the regulation committee shall assess, at their discretion, how much the candidate must contribute and what sum shall be considered a hantgelt [down payment] or entrance fee. The candidate is also obligated to purchase matzo bread for the entire society. From this day forward, he shall sign at the end of all communal documents alongside the other signatories, without deviation (pinkas, fol. 15b). The candidate must have been married for at least three years (pinkas, fol. 11b).

It is recorded in the pinkas that in the year 5504 (1744), Nosn [Natan], son of Rabbi Zvi, joined the society on the condition that he contribute a silver charity box weighing 16 loth and half a shteyn khalev [a standardized block of tallow]. In return, he was exempted from the entry meal, which every new member was required to host for all other members upon joining the chevra. For one year only, he did not receive a ballot slip or participate in the voting–meaning he had no voting rights in the society for that year (pinkas folio 39a).

It was resolved that no member may be admitted in a private home, regardless of who he is; admission must take place either in the bes-medresh [study house] or in the cheder hakahal [communal hall], otherwise the admission is null and void.

It was further resolved that for an aliyah granted in fulfillment of the obligation of a yoledet (a woman who has recently given birth), a payment of two large coins^[f] was required–though members of the society were exempt from this fee.

Another resolution stated that upon the passing of a member of the society, his son shall inherit his status and become a member with full rights – provided he donates half a shteyn khalev. If no son was left behind, the son-in-law inherits the same privilege. However, anyone who wishes to become a member, even if his parents were never members, is not exempt from hosting the entry meal for all members upon admission (pinkas, fol. 40b).

The pinkas records that HaRabani [the rabbinically honored] Yisroel ben Moyshe was appointed and paid six Polish guilders as his admission fee. In addition, he committed himself to lead the Shacharit [morning prayer] on Rosh Hashanah each year. If he should decline, he was obligated to pay the society two Reichsthaler. (Entry from 16 Elul 5584 / 1824, folio 23a).

Furthermore, anyone who undertakes to lead the Shacharit on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur in the Great Bes-HaMedresh was required to pay six Reichsthaler to the gaboim if he failed to fulfill the commitment. Likewise, one who pledged to lead the Musaf prayer on Rosh Hashanah and Kol Nidrei was required to pay six Prussian Reichsthaler in case of non-performance (ibid.).

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We find, in the record of the election of gaboim and other officials for the period from the intermediate days of Passover 5552 [1792] until those of Passover 5553 [1793], that the distinguished Torah scholar and rabbinically honored sage, our teacher Rabbi Yaakov, son of Rabbi Binyamin, was admitted as a member. In exchange for the maot kadima [advance payment], he committed himself to read from the sacred book in our community's study house of the Ner Tamid society throughout his life, without compensation – except for whatever income might accrue to him from the reading of the Megillah, which was considered his rightful share.

To strengthen the chevra, a communal meal was to be held each year on Chanuka. The gaboim were obligated to convene with the ba'alei takanos [regulation- holders] on Rosh Chodesh Kislev [beginning of the month of Kislev] to assess how much each member should contribute toward the meal. If a member failed to pay, the gaboim were authorized to fine him at their discretion (pinkas, fol. 56a).

Elections for gaboim were held every year during Chol HaMoed Pesach [the intermediate days of the Passover festival]. The gaboim were chosen by means of a kalfi [ballot box], into which slips of paper (pitkaot or tsetlen) bearing the names of the chevra members were placed. The following positions were elected:

• senior gaboim,
• senior officials responsible for communal regulations
• a registrar in charge of the pinkas
• a permanent sitting member
• a treasurer
• and the motzi u-meivi, (leader of income and expenditure) [the official responsible for delivering and collecting communal correspondence and funds].

Anyone not previously registered as a member in the chevra may not be appointed by the borerim (electoral committee) as a gabe, but only as a baal takanah [a member entrusted with drafting or upholding communal regulations] – and even that only after one year.

Moreover, no one may be appointed as a gabe unless he has first served as a baal takanah. A further ordinance was enacted: the borerim may not appoint someone as motzi u-meivi unless he has previously served for two years as a gabe (pinkas, fol. 12a).

It was decided by the baalei takanot [regulation-holders] together with the chevra, on the 27^th of Nisan 5575 [1815], that the Shas Bavli [Babylonian Talmud] should be divided among the members of the Chevra Kadisha Ner Tamid [i.e., each member would commit to studying a designated tractate or portion], so that the entire Talmud would be completed collectively by the upcoming Simchat Torah of 5576 [1816], and likewise every year until the arrival of the Redeemer, may He come speedily, G'd willing.

Each member was required to contribute, from the beginning of Iyar of that year until Cheshvan 5576, two Polish gdolim [large coins] per week. The society was obligated to hold a celebratory meal marking the Siyum HaShas [completion of the Shas] on Rosh Chodesh Cheshvan 5576, and this practice was to be continued every Rosh Chodesh Mar-Cheshvan thereafter – until the coming of the Redeemer, without formal vow.

From Rosh Chodesh [Cheshvan] 5576 onward, the weekly contribution was to be reduced to one Polish godl [large coin].

It is the duty of the gaboim [communal administrators] to grant aliyot [Torah honors] to the members of the chevra once a year during the shalosh regalim [three pilgrimage festivals: Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot]. Whoever receives an aliyah on one festival shall not be called up on the second or third, so that every member of the society may receive an aliyah during one of the three festivals each year. (ibid., folio 32a)

As in all sacred communities, it was decided by the alufim ha-borerim [senior arbiters and electoral committee] that from the current year's Chol ha-Moed Pesach of 5482 [1722] until 5483 [1723],

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the bes-medresh congregation shall receive the aliyah [Torah honor]. That is: all worshippers who are not members of the Chevra Ner Tamid shall be called up to the Torah on Parashat Tetzaveh [the Shabbat before Purim] and Parashat Beha'alotecha [in Sivan, after Shavuot], and this practice shall not be altered (pinkas, folio 11a).

We read a ruling that, if there should be a mourner– G'd forbid– the Kaddish de-Rabbanan [the mourner's Kaddish recited after Torah study] is reserved for a mourner who is a member of the chevra. However, a mourner who is not a member does not receive [the right to recite] this Kaddish (pinkas, folio 15b).

Furthermore, the aluf ha-gabbai [senior administrator] of the bes-medresh is obligated to grant aliyot to three members of the chevra every Shabbat Kodesh [holy Sabbath], so that over time all members will have the opportunity to be called up to the Torah–except during the gabbai's own designated month. During that month, the gabe receives Shishi [the sixth aliyah], which is counted toward the annual tally of Torah honors (pinkas, folio 15b).

On the second day of Chol ha-Moed Pesach in the year 5562 [1802], it was resolved–due to a lack of income needed to maintain the bes-medresh–that from now on, anyone who receives an aliyah on Shabbat must pay for it. For each aliyah from Kohen, Levi [i.e., the first two Torah honors, traditionally assigned to descendants of the priestly and Levitical lines], through Shishi, the fee shall be nine Polish gdolim [large coins]. However, Kohen and Levi shall not be required to pay more than three large coins. The Rav Av Beis Din [head of the rabbinical court, responsible for halachic rulings] and the Rav ha-Maggid [community preacher and spiritual guide] are exempt from payment.

If there is a darshan hagun [worthy preacher], the gabe may grant him an aliyah free of charge. Whoever receives the Acharon [final aliyah] must pay nine large coins, and for aliyot from Shishi [the sixth aliyah] onward, but not including Acharon, the fee shall be four large coins.

On the major Jewish festivals–namely the three pilgrimage holidays, but excluding the Days of Awe–the same rules as on Shabbat apply. This regulation includes even those with ritual obligations, such as fathers of newborns, kvaters [ceremonial godparents], escorts, and mechutonim [in-laws].

Anyone who fails to pay for their aliyah shall not be called up to the Torah again until they settle their debt (ibit., folio 65b).

It was unanimously agreed by the entire Chevra Kadisha Ner Tamid that individuals who are members of the chevra and serve as gaboim in the synagogue's bekuspa gedolah [main treasury] shall, under absolutely no circumstances–in any context or setting–also serve as gaboim of Ner Tamid, not even in the bes-medresh.

Furthermore, each gabe [gabbai] must lead prayers in the bes-medresh every Shabbat during his designated month – and, needless to say, during his mourning period. Any gabe who violates this rule shall be fined and removed from office.

From this day forward, the gabe is also required to circulate with the pushke [charity box] in the bes-medresh after daily prayers. The money collected belongs to the charitable fund of the bes-medresh. These resolutions were enacted in the year 5501 [1741].

During the appointment of treasurers and other officials, from Chol ha-Moed Pesach of the year 5511 [1751] until Chol ha-Moed Pesach of 5512 [1752], the following was recorded: the distinguished treasurers of the synagogue – the head of the yeshiva, the honored Rabbi David ben ha-Rav M., and the esteemed Aharon ben ha-Rav N. – are affiliated with the synagogue;

while the honored leader, our teacher, the Rabbi Eliyahu ben ha-Rav Avraham, and our teacher, Rabbi Zvi ben Morenu ha-Rav are affiliated with the bes-medresh (there, folio 45a).

On the 3^rd of Adar, 5586 [1826], it was resolved: since the bes-medresh is constantly overcrowded with worshippers and learners, and the sole shames [caretaker] is unable to manage everything –

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and given that there have been thefts in the bes-medresh – it was decided to appoint Rabbi Zvi, son of Morenu ha-Rav Rabbi Yitzchak Segal as a second shames. His duties include sweeping and cleaning the bes-medresh daily, washing the hand towels at least once a week, overseeing the sacred books, bringing water, and circulating weekly with the pushke [charity box] in town on behalf of the bes-medresh. For this, he shall receive a weekly wage of three gildn [guilders] (ibid., folio 67b).

It was agreed that–when a member of the Ner Tamid society passes away^[g] –the names of the [present] members shall be placed into the kalfi [ballot box], and at least ten of them shall pray in the house of mourning for thirty days, and study there in the morning and evening.

The ten whose names are drawn for the second week shall go during that week, and so on. Each person has the right to dingen [hire] a substitute to take his place.

This obligation applies explicitly if the deceased was a Morenu [ordained scholar], or if he was able to study a page of Talmud within the society.

And if someone refuses to go or to hire a substitute, it shall be recorded in the pinkas that the members of the Chevra Kadisha Ner Tamid shall not go to his house after his death (ibid., folio 70b).

A special resolution was enacted: no one who is not a member of the chevra shall be permitted to make use of the Gemara that is studied within the society.

And if a member of the Chevra Ner Tamid wishes to participate in the study of the Shas [the full corpus of the Talmud, comprising Mishna and Gemara] at the communal table, then–if he pays the designated fee of one Prussian Reichsthaler–the society is obligated to admit him. (This resolution dates from Marcheshvan 5577 [1816], ibid., folio 77b).

On the second day of Chol HaMoed Passover, 5582 [1822], Morenu Elyakum Getzel Meir, son of ha-Rav Morenu Yitzchak, was admitted as a member of the Chevra Kadisha Ner Tamid. He had already paid the full entrance fee – down to the last perutah [small coin] (there, folio 73b).

On that same day, Rabbi Elyakum Getzel reached a nispasher [settlement] with the Chevra Ner Tamid regarding the claims that his father –the great and renowned Rabbi Morenu Yitzchak, of blessed memory–had against the society.

Rabbi Yitzchak had served in our community as a Maggid Meisharim [“proclaimer of righteousness”] and as a mohal tzedek [certified ritual circumciser] (ibid., folio 73b).

In the record of donations to the bes-medresh, the earliest entry noted is a contribution by the elder Moyshe, son of Morenu ha-Rav Binyamin, of blessed memory, from the year 5490 [1730]: 100 zehuvim [Polish gold coins], with the condition that the annual income of 10 Polish gulden from this sum shall be allocated to the needs of the bes-hamedresh, from now and for all time.

The principal of the fund remains a full debt upon the community to the Chevra Ner Tamid. And if the community fails to uphold this condition even for a single year, the chevra may reclaim from the community the principal of the fund along with its accrued interest – “with full force and authority, by action of the rabbinical court and its enforcers, with the same binding power as all debt contracts, under all bans and excommunications.

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And by this merit, may the Lord grant us to ascend in joy to Jerusalem. ” (With seven signatures, there, folio 22b).

On the 19^th of Kislev, in the year 5541 [1780], it is recorded:

“But let that man be remembered for good!” –

The late dignitary, our teacher, Morenu ha-Rav Shmuel, son of R' Yehuda, donated three hundred Polish zehuvim [gulden or gold coins] to the bes-medresh, with the condition that the annual profits – twenty-four zehuvim – be allocated to the needs of the bes-hamedresh.

Accordingly, the three hundred Polish gulden were entrusted to the leaders of the Chevra Kadisha Gemilas Chesed shel Emes [Holy Burial Society for Genuine Charity] for the purchase of land in the cemetery and the repair of its surrounding fence^[3]. The annual income of twenty-four Polish gulden is to be handed over by the Chevra Kadisha to the bes-medresh for its needs, in accordance with the testament of the aforementioned donor, Shmuel.

The principal of the fund belongs to the Chevra Ner Tamid, with the stipulation that if the Chevra Kadisha fails to deliver even one year's income from the three hundred gulden for the needs of the bes-medresh, the principal amount shall be reclaimed from the Chevra Kadisha by the authority of the Beis Din.

The disbursement of the income shall take place every Rosh Chodesh Sivan. (With five signatures. Ibid., folio 20b).

According to a resolution from the 7^th of Marcheshvan, 5574 [October 1813], eighty zehuvim [gold coins] are to be paid annually from the rental income of the public bathhouse of our community to the Beis Din Tzedek [rabbinical court] for the needs of the Great Bes-Hamedresh.

Copied from the Pinkas ha-Kahal^[4]:

I hereby sign in witness: Shmuel, son of our revered teacher Moyshe Yosef Segal, may his memory be a blessing in the World to Come (Ibid., folio 32b) –

in remembrance of the late R' Yehuda Leyb, son of Rabbi Yosef, of blessed memory, who departed this life and left behind a sum of 150 Polish zehuvim for the bes-hamedresh of our community.

As of today, the Chevra Kadisha Gemilas Chesed shel Emes has taken responsibility for using the fund for tashmishei kedusha [sacred ritual objects], and has committed to transferring the annual proceeds – twelve zlotys – to the bes-medresh for its needs (ibid., folio 41).

A generous donation of a full 1,000 Polish zlotys is recorded in a protocol of the bes-medresh, dated the 11^th of Tammuz, 5602 [July 1842]:

Upon the gathering of the Chevra Ner Tamid in the cheder ha-kahal [council chamber], it was found that the Great Bes-Medresh of this town lay in ruins. Although several volunteers in the city had pledged support for the bedek ha-bayit [basic repairs], their contributions proved insufficient to restore the bes-medresh to the condition it ought to be in.

Therefore, today the Chevra Kadisha Gemilas Chesed shel Emes contributed the full sum of 1,000 Polish zehuvim [gold coins] toward the restoration of the bes-medresh.

This amount was donated by the noble matron, the elder Mrs. Chayka, daughter of the late Morenu ha-Rav Naftali Zvi, as a consecrated sum for her burial, given in perpetuity.

It is hereby resolved that, from this day onward and in perpetuity, the Chevra Ner Tamid relinquishes any and all claims or demands against the Chevra Kadisha Gemilas Chesed shel Emes –

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even for the smallest conceivable sum, not even for a single perutah [smallest coin].

Furthermore, a prior regulation had stipulated that on the festival of Shemini Atzeret and on Shabbat Bereshit, all aliyot [Torah call-ups] and ceremonial honors in the Great Bes-Medresh of this town were to be conferred exclusively upon the Chevra Kadisha Gemilas Chesed shel Emes (ibid., folio 89b).

In the Old Bes-Medresh, intensive study was conducted, and accordingly, its needs were greater. In order to gather as many religious books as possible, particular note was made – among the many names of donors of money and ritual objects, primarily silver candlesticks – of those who contributed books.

From the year 5562 [1802], a resolution records the estate of a shop formerly owned by the late Morenu ha-Rav Nosn [Natan], son of Morenu ha-Rav Yosef, and, after him, the estate of his daughter Sara Chayka. According to this resolution, the rental income from the shop was to be allocated to the Chevra Bikur Cholim [charitable medical aid society], with one quarter designated for the purchase of religious books for the Old Bes-Medresh.

The largest recorded donation of books, however, came from a different source: the woman Esther, daughter of the distinguished and late Morenu ha-Rav Dan – may the memory of the righteous be a blessing and may he merit eternal life.

She had saved up for herself, gathering perutah by perutah [small coin by small coin], and purchased for the Old Bes-Medresh

- a complete Babylonian Talmud, Amsterdam edition, bound in twelve volumes;

- the Alfasi [halachic digest by R. Isaac Alfasi], Amsterdam edition, in three volumes;

- a Rambam [Maimonides] from the same press;

- a Yoreh De'ah [section of the Shulchan Arukh on ritual law] from that press;

- volumes of the Maharsha [Talmud commentary by R. Shmuel Eidels, 16th c.] and the Maharshal [Talmudic legal rulings by R. Shloyme Luria, 16^th c.], likewise from that edition;

- and a cabinet with keys.

A special place was designated for the cabinet in the bes-medresh, and from there it was not to be moved. (Tuesday, 4^th day of Chanukah, 5605 [1844], ibid., fol. 94b).

In more recent times – on the first day of Rosh Chodesh Iyar, 5654 (1894) – a donation was recorded from Avraham, son of the late Morenu ha-Rav Baruch Kopils, and his modest wife Gitl, daughter of Chaim Chaykl. Being childless, they gifted a Torah scroll to the synagogue, along with a set of the Nevi'im [Prophets] written on parchment, for the bes-medresh, which until then had lacked one.

Author's footnotes:

1. This aligns with a remarkable historical detail: on a plaque that still hangs today in an old Catholic church in Białystok, it is recorded that a certain Terevizhinska, in the year 1717, loaned the Jewish synagogue 1,000 gulden. The condition of the loan – which may have been intended to support the construction of the study house – was that, in exchange for the interest, an eternal light (Ner Tamid) would be kept burning in the church. See: Białystoker Almanac, 1931, p. 11. Return
2. The Pinkas was already torn and its pages loosened and scattered, so it was rebound – but not in chronological order. I present here the pages of the Pinkas according to its current binding. I was the first to draw attention to the date 5478 [1718] of the study house and to the significance of this Pinkas in my brief sketch on the old Białystok community, published in the jubilee issue of Haynt, 5688 [1928], pp. 113–114. For the final detailed excerpt, I was assisted by Shimen Konyak. Return
3. According to the [original] decision, I had previously – mistakenly – assumed that the first old cemetery [of Białystok] had been established in the year 5541 (1781), and I wrote as much in my brief sketch of the Białystok community in the jubilee issue of Haynt. However, gravestones have since been found that predate that year. Thus, the passage in question merely indicates that the 300 gulden were used to purchase additional land for the cemetery and to repair its preexisting fence. Return
4. The Pinkas ha-Kahal, which contained all the essential records of the Białystok community, has, as mentioned, been lost. As a result, we are left groping in the dark when it comes to the history of the old Białystok community. Return

1. Contents in [ ] are from the translator. Return
2. Khevra Neyr-Tomid, or Chevra Ner Tamid = Society of Eternal Light Return
3. Throughout this work, I retain the typical Ashkenazi Yiddish pronunciation for certain Hebrew terms, reflecting the linguistic and cultural texture of the original sources. Return
4. gaboim, gaboyem, or gabbaim: Singular form of gabe or gabai, a communal administrator responsible for synagogue affairs or financial matters. Return
5. The term actually meant is חבר khaver/chaver, which translates as “friend,” “comrade,” or “companion.” However, since it refers here to membership in a particular society, I consider it appropriate to translate the term as “member.” Return
6. The term גדול godl or gadol, literally meaning “large” or “great” in Hebrew and Yiddish, is used idiomatically in communal records to denote a coin – often a larger or more valuable one. In this context, “[poylish] godl” likely refers to a Polish gulden or similar high-denomination coin. While godl can also mean “groschen” or simply “coin,” its use here suggests a substantial monetary unit, possibly gold or silver, employed as a standard for dues or entrance fees. The ambiguity reflects both linguistic flexibility and the fluidity of currency terminology in 18^th-century Jewish communal life. Return
7. The term נעדר ne'edar usually means “absent,” but in this context it refers to the deceased member of the society. Return

The importance of acquiring religious books for the Old Bes-Medresh, even in the modern period, is evident from the fact that, for this very purpose, a dedicated society was established in the year 5603 [1843], on Tuesday, the 25^th of Nisan: the Chevra Tikkun Sefarim [Society for the Repair and Acquisition of Books]. It was given its own pinkas [register], containing seven formal statutes – “she has hewn out her seven pillars” (chatzvah amudeha shiv'ah), as the verse says.

These statutes were signed by the Białystoker Rav, R' Elyakum Getzel Meir, together with the members of the Beis Din Tzedek [rabbinical court]:

• R' Shmuel Sod, author of Bigdei Yesha [a halachic commentary on Shulchan Arukh],
• and the dayan [member of the rabbinical court] R' Leyb Cohen.

It is further noted that the books must be beautifully bound – a requirement that entails considerable expense.

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This chevra was likewise established with the full klaper-getsayg [apparatus] – including annual elections of borerim on the 8^th of Iyar to select alufim [honorary leaders], gaboim [wardens], a ne'eman pinkas [register trustee], and a ne'eman dim'ot [trustee of charitable funds].

All distinguished and scholarly members of the chevra were enrolled in this society – especially the young men engaged in study, khasanim [grooms], and avrechim [married students].

In the bes-medresh, study was conducted in separate chevras, except for the Shas [Talmud], which was studied collectively by the entire Chevra Ner Tamid. One particular society studied Shulchan Arukh [“Set Table,” a codification of Jewish law] and Orach Chayim [“Path of Life,” the section of Shulchan Arukh dealing with daily religious practice] every day after prayer. This society was called Chevra Shulchan Arukh and maintained its own register from the year 5599 [1799], titled El Shulchan Melakhim [“To the Table of Kings”], which included seven statutes (chatzvah amudeha shiv'ah) from the year 5606 [1806].

Each member was required to pay a weekly fee of one large Polish coin^[e]; any member who missed a day of study was fined half a coin for each missed day.

Over time, the society dissolved and was reestablished in 5618 [1858] and again in 5637 [1877]. A table in the southwestern corner of the bes-medresh was designated for the study of Shulchan Arukh and Orach Chayim.

Study was also conducted in a separate Chevra-Midrash, under rabbinic guidance. This society maintained its own pinkas, now housed in the Kahal Shtibl Chevra Torah, located near the synagogue.

It was founded in the year 5667 [1807], with formal statutes signed by the Chief Rabbi and Head of the Rabbinical Court, R' Shloyme Zalman ben ha-Rav Ch., and by the dayan Rabbi Yitzchak ben Morenu ha-Rav – from the year 5669 [1809].

From a later period, the register contains a richly detailed introduction written by Rabbi Chanoch Zundel ben Morenu ha-Rav R' Yosef, of blessed memory, the author of Anafim [“Branches”], a commentary on the Midrashim [rabbinic biblical interpretations].

At the end of his introduction, he writes that the pinkas is a copy of an older one, and that he has been studying Midrash with the society under the leadership of the distinguished Rabbi Yitzchak Ayzik ben Morenu ha-Rav Aharon for more than twenty-four years.

The pinkas contains an endorsement of the chevra by the alufim [honorary leaders or distinguished elders] of the community, along with a declaration that no one is permitted to compete with the chevra [i.e. to establish a competing chevra].

In the year 5569 [1809], they were granted a designated place to study Midrash in the Old Bes-Medresh, specifically outside of prayer times, and were also permitted to take a Torah scroll from the house of prayer – which belongs to them just as it does to all other societies.

The pinkas records the names of the members who purchased Midrash volumes for lifelong study within the society, thereby becoming permanent members.

Within the Old Bes-Medresh, additional religious chevras were active – such as the Chevra Asiri Kodesh [“Society of the Holy Tenth”], which, beginning with Yom Kippur, would count ten days and dedicate the final one to divine service: fasting, reciting Selichot [penitential prayers invoking divine mercy], and reading Vayechal [“And he pleaded” – Moses' intercession after the sin of the Golden Calf].

According to a resolution by the senior wardens of the Society of the Holy Tenth, issued on Erev Shabbat Kodesh, the tenth of Marcheshvan, in the year 5530 [1770], it was decreed that each year, in the month of Cheshvan, ten zehuvim [gold coins] must be donated to the bes-medresh of our community (ibid., folio 46a.).

Translator's footnotes:

1. khevra or chevra (חברה): A Jewish communal association or society, often organized around a specific religious, charitable, or social function. Common types include burial societies [Chevra Kadisha], study groups [Chevra Shas], and aid organizations [Chevra Bikur Cholim]. Return
2. Contents in [ ] are from the translator. Return
3. bes-medresh or beit midrash (בית-מדרש): A Jewish house of study and prayer, traditionally attached to a synagogue or functioning independently. It serves as a communal space for Torah and Talmud learning, halakhic discussion, and spiritual reflection. In Ashkenazi contexts, especially in Eastern Europe, the term is pronounced bes-medresh and often evokes the intimate, lived-in atmosphere of shtetl scholarship and communal devotion. Please note that I use the typical “Ashkenazi" Yiddish pronunciation also for some other Hebrew words. Return
4. “And now, write for yourselves…” (Deuteronomy 31:19) – a verse often cited as the basis for the commandment to write or acquire sacred texts. Return
5. The term “godl” or “gadol” (גדול), literally meaning “large” or “great” in Hebrew and Yiddish, is used idiomatically in communal records to denote a coin – often one of larger denomination or value. In this context, “[poylish] godl” likely refers to a Polish gulden or similar high-value coin. While “godl” may also denote a groschen or generic coin, its usage here suggests a substantial monetary unit, possibly gold or silver, employed as a communal standard for dues or entrance fees. The term reflects both linguistic flexibility and the fluidity of currency terminology in 18^th-century Jewish life. Return

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One of the most important and widespread societies was the Chevra Shomrim la-Boker [“Society of Those Who Keep Watch Until Morning”], which also maintained a special connection to the Old Bes-Medresh.

Its purpose was to rise before dawn – after midnight (chatzot ha-layla) – and to mourn the destruction of the Temple, sitting on the ground, reciting Kinot [liturgical dirges expressing grief over the Temple's destruction and communal tragedies] and Selichot [penitential prayers seeking divine forgiveness, recited before dawn during periods of repentance], performing the midnight ritual, and before daybreak, reciting Selichot according to a specific liturgical tradition until daybreak, after which the Vatikin [prayer timed precisely with sunrise] is offered at the break of dawn.

The society still exists in part today^[1]. It possesses a dedicated Pinkas (register), which was last renewed in the year 5581 [1821], though it contains three pages from an earlier register dating to the years 5526 [1766], 12 Cheshvan 5527 [1766], and 5535 [1775].

In the introduction to the pinkas from the year 5527 [1767], it is stated that the society's purpose – following the teachings of the Shelah [acronym for Shnei Luchot ha-Brit, a 17^th-century ethical and mystical work by Rabbi Isaiah Horowitz] – is to unite day and night through Torah and prayer.

Yet Torah is not accessible to all – “Ve-lo kol adam zokheh la-Torah [not every person merits Torah]” – whereas prayer is equal for everyone.

According to Rakanat^[b], the request for divine mercy is appropriate only at night, when God rests among the living worlds.

For this reason, all God-fearing Jews in Białystok would gather together. Over time, the society was abandoned, but it has now been reestablished: every member is required to attend the Shomrim la-Boker prayers, and anyone who neglects them for a day must pay a substantial fine to charity.

As in other sacred chevras, a ballot is to be held during Chol ha-Moed of Passover to elect three arbiters, who will then appoint three wardens.

This declaration is signed by Reuven HaLevi, acting as m'm me-po – the sole representative of the klei kodesh [sacred officiants] in Białystok at that time, as is further recounted.

In the year 5597 [1837], a regulation was enacted to establish the nightly order of Tikkun Chatzot, to mourn and lament the destruction [of the Temple].

The society was granted a Torah scroll from the bes-medresh to read during the week and on the holy Sabbath. A dedicated space for their reading room was assigned to them in the aliyah – the upper gallery – which served as their designated location in the bes-medresh on Sabbaths and festivals, and during the week at the place where they prayed the early morning hashkama service [held at dawn with the minyan].

These enactments were made in conjunction with the honorable and eminent rabbi, our community's Av Beis Din [head of the rabbinical court] and Moreh Hora'ah [rabbi, halachic decisor or teacher of Jewish law].^[2]

In the year 5535 [1775], the society was further strengthened, as it had nearly ceased to function due to a lack of candles. A regulation was enacted: anyone who participated in the chevra would contribute one gulden per week – no more;

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but anyone who did not participate would pay two gulden, so that candles could be purchased daily, both tallow and wax.

In the years 5580–5581 [1820–1821], the society was again reinforced through six enactments, approved by the rabbinical judges:

• Tuvia, son of the late and revered Rabbi Yitzchak Bekharach, of blessed memory
• Rabbi Naftali Zvi, son of Morenu ha-Rav R' Moyshe Yafeh, of blessed memory
• Shmuel, son of our honored teacher, Rabbi Yosef Sigal, of blessed and exalted memory
• Kalonymus Kalman, son of Morenu Rabbi Pesach, of righteous memory

From the year 5592 [1832], the following members are recorded: R'Yaakov, son of Morenu Rabbi Meir Weinreich, and the notable gentleman Morenu Rabbi Yaakov Kopil, son of Morenu Rabbi Yehoshua Halpern.

From 5594 [1834]: The distinguished rabbinic scholar and community leader Morenu Rabbi Yitzchak Ayzik, son of Rabbi Moyshe HaLevi Epstein, of blessed memory – father of R' Yisrael and grandfather of R' Moyshe Gershon Epstein.

In 5599 [1839]: R'Yehoshua Heschel Halpern – also known as Heschel Medalshtshik – who later became the society's dayan [judge], as described below.

There were also maskilim [enlightened scholars] among its members: The well-known Russian educator Katryel Kaplan, proprietor of a Russian-Yiddish folk school and a lending library of Russian books (see below), was a devoted and active member – performing Chatzot, reciting Tehillim, and praying vatikin daily.

In 5599 [1839], mention is made “of the room assigned to the society within the Chomah Synagogue.”

Later, it became customary to record members in the pinkas [register] purely as a mark of honor – as in the year 5617 [1857], on the second day of Chol HaMoed Pesach, when the chevra recorded the rabbinic gentleman Yechiel Ber, son of Yisrael (Volkoviski). After his death on the 5^th of Shevat 5663 [1903], his son Avraham Eber was also entered – though both were, in practice, quite distant from Shomrim la-Boker.

In our own times, up to the year 5690 [1930], it became customary to record names in the register in exchange for money – including women.^[3]

Surviving to this day are old pinkasim – registers of chevras that once served the town's ordinary folk. In the synagogue, one finds an old register of a Chevra Tehillim [Psalm Society] established in the year 5526 [1766], and a second register of a Chevra Maggidei Tehillim [Society of Psalm Reciters]. The founders of these societies obtained haskamot [rabbinic endorsements] from the rabbis of Tykocin – for at that time, the Białystok community was still under their jurisdiction – namely, the esteemed sages ha-Rav Rabbi Shalom and ha-Rav Rabbi Ephraim Fishel.

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In the following year, 5527 [1767], another haskamah was granted by ha-Rav Rabbi Kalman, a Białystoker.^[4] In their endorsements, one finds a formal warning (hatra'ah) that no one is to infringe upon the society's established rights.

From the same year, 5526 [1766], a precious tas [Torah shield] is preserved in the synagogue, still hung on the Torah scroll during the Yamim Nora'im [Days of Awe].

The date is engraved within the phrase: “As a groom shall serve in place of a priest, and the bride shall be adorned in her finery.”^[c]

From the highlighted letters, the year 5527 [1767] emerges.

There is no old pinkas [register] of the synagogue itself, but a register from its women's section – the vayber-shul – dated 5563 (1803) still exists. The Old Synagogue was originally built without a women's gallery. However, during the period of Prussian annexation, two women's galleries were constructed on its northern and southern wings. These appear to have been constructed lower than the central structure, likely to accommodate this new function.

The register describes this event and recounts that, for this bedek ha-bayit [structural repairs and modifications], a contribution was made by the former owner and duchess of Białystok –may she be protected – the widow of Jan Klemens Branicki, in accordance with the generosity of her heart. Individual members of the community also donated, and shtet [seating spaces or benches] were sold [to raise additional funds].

Accordingly, the Pinkas records only the acquisition of women's seats, along with a few men's seats that were added later. The old “men's synagogue,” together with the two women's galleries, is referred to in the register in the plural: “shuln” [synagogues]. It also notes that the original register of the Old Synagogue had been lost – indicating that by 1803, the Pinkas was no longer extant.

Another old register from the year 5566 [1806] is preserved in the New Bes-Medresh, belonging to a chevra for the study of Shulchan Arukh and Orach Chayim. But we will return to this later, when we discuss the registers of the societies that emerged in subsequent years.

Author's footnotes:

1. Several members of the society convene every Monday and on the eve of Rosh Chodesh to recite Selichot and Tehillim according to the rite of Shomrim la-Boker. The society also maintains a rented bes-medresh at No.7 Chazanowicz Street, designated for prayer and study. Return
2. We do not know who served at that time as the Av Beis Din and halachic decisor of our community. Ha-Rav R' Yehoshua Shapiro was already in Schwerin, Mecklenburg, by then. Possibly it was R' Yehuda, son of Rabbi Mordechai? However, we find a haskamah and a declaration stating that the enactments of Rabbi Ephraim Fishel, son of Morenu R' Yehoshua of the holy community of Tykocin, from the year 5527 [1767], must not be altered. It is possible that this refers to him, as he also served as Galil Rav – regional rabbi – for Białystok. Indeed, his grave is found in the old cemetery, though apparently only as a visitor, not as Białystok's resident rabbi or Av Beis Din. Return
3. I must point out that the greatest amei ha'aretz – the least educated – were among the members of the Shomrim la-Boker society. The majority of them could not sign their names and were recorded in the pinkas [register] with be-mesek [with a sign in place of a signature]. Even those few who did sign wrote their names with errors. In the Pinkas of the Chevra Torah, fewer were marked be-mesek; in the Pinkas of the Chevra Chayatim [tailors' society], even fewer; and in the Pinkas of the Chevra Midrash, not a single one. In the register of the Old Bes-Medresh, there is certainly not a single entry marked be-mesek. Return
4. It is difficult to determine the period of this rabbi. Could it be R' Kalonymus Kalman Lichtenstein, who died in the year 5549 [1789]? But prior to him, the rabbi and head of the rabbinical court (Rav Av Beis Din) was R' Yehudah, son of R' Mordechai. Return

1. Contents in [ ] are from the translator. Return
2. רקנ”ט = Rakanat is cited in classical liturgical commentaries such as Magen Avraham (§24:2), Mishnah Berurah, and B'er Heitev as a kabbalistic source interpreting the divine names (Havayot) as manifestations of the Sefirot. The precise nature of this source remains uncertain – it may refer to a mystical acronym rather than a named individual. According to this tradition, divine mercy is most appropriately sought at night, when God “rests among the living worlds” – a phrase suggesting that the divine presence dwells more intimately within the inner spiritual realms (Sefirot) rather than the external world of action. In this quiet descent, the soul becomes more receptive, and prayer more potent. Return
3. The engraved phrase – “As a groom shall serve in place of a priest, and the bride shall be adorned in her finery” – is a quotation from Isaiah 61:10. It conceals the year 5527 [1767] through highlighted Hebrew letters whose numerical value [gematria] corresponds to the date. This technique, common in Torah ornaments and communal artifacts, embeds historical information within poetic or biblical language. Return

Based on these excerpts from the Pinkas [register] of the Old Bes-Medresh and from the sub-registers of its affiliated societies, one can form a clear picture of the religious life of Jews in Białystok in earlier times.

However, it would be quite mistaken to infer from the inscription above the bimah in the currently standing stone-built bes-medresh that the present, relatively spacious bes-medresh had already been erected in the year 5478 [1718], and that the community had therefore already been a large one.

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According to an old statistic, the number of Jewish souls in Białystok in the year 1765 (5525) was 765^[1]. It may be assumed that, from the outset, a small wooden bes-medresh had been built (at that time, very few masonry buildings had yet been erected in Białystok).

In 1703 (5463), Stefan Branicki built his small wooden palace in Białystok. The old koshtshol (Catholic church) was likewise originally a wooden structure, dating to the year 1581. It was only in 1617 that a small masonry building was constructed, which now forms part of the present-day church.

The bes-medresh at that time also had an eybershtibl [upper room], as can be seen from the fact that in the year 5527 [1767], the Chevra Shomrim la-Boker was granted this upper room as a reading room for Shabbat and festivals (see earlier, the excerpt from the Pinkas of Shomrim la-Boker).

The bes-medresh was later rebuilt and expanded. An eybershtibl [upper room] was added in the year 5518 [1758]. At that time, a chanukat ha-bayit [dedication of the house] was celebrated there, together with a brit milah [circumcision ceremony], which was customarily held in the bes-medresh in those days.

The dedication celebration is recorded in the Pinkas of the bes-medresh (folio 33 verso):

“This is the day that the Lord has made; let us rejoice and be glad in it.” [Psalm 118:24] “On the day of my wedding and the day of the joy of my heart.” [Song of Songs 3:11] – this is the dedication of the building of the small sanctuary, the great and holy house of study in our community, reckoned according to the verse: “Were it not for My covenant day and night, I would not have established the laws of heaven and earth.” [Jeremiah 33:25] (That is, the year 5518 as I count it.) “And it shall come to pass, if you will hearken to these judgments…” [Deuteronomy 7:12] On Thursday, in the Torah portion of that week, the joy of the dedication of the holy house was joined with the joy of a circumcision. May the Lord again acquire the exiled people, the children of Jacob – Selah. [poetic paraphrase of Isaiah 11:11] “When the Lord returned the captives of Zion, we were like dreamers; then our mouth was filled with laughter…” [Psalm 126:1–2], בב”י א”ס^{[b] [2]}.

Therefore, the bes-medresh is initially referred to in our Pinkas as “our bes-medresh,” that is, the communal bes-medresh, because there had previously been minyanim [prayer qurorums] in which ordinary townspeople and women prayed. Later, it is referred to as “the Great Bes-Medresh,” but only in the year 5569 [1808], on the 28^th of Tishrei (see the Pinkas of the Chevra Midrash^[3], is it called Beit Chomah Gadol- The Great Stone Bes-Medresh.

This suggests that by that time it had already been built of masonry, and it was given that title in order to distinguish it from the New Bes-Medresh, which at that time was still wooden (see further).

The Old Bes-Medresh, however, was a communal institution. As we have seen, it received income from the public bathhouse and from the Chevra Kadisha Gachsha^[c]. It also

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received a percentage of communal donations, as its fund had been transferred into the general treasury. The largest sum – 1,000 zlotys – came from the Chevra Kadisha Gachsha, earmarked for major bedek ha-bayit [structural repairs and modifications] in the year 5602 [1842].

The idea of constructing an ezrat nashim [women's section] in the building was first raised in the year 5581 [1821], in order to increase its income, which had declined (see folio 6 verso).

From what is described there, it appears that this was to be implemented in today's Beis Sheni, [which was an empty room in the Old Bes-Medresh at that time]. However, the room was later redesignated as a Beis Sheni, leaving the Bes-Medresh without a women's section once again.^[d]

Before the war, funds had already been collected to build a women's section in it, but due to opposition from certain kana'im [zealots], the project was never realized. And indeed, as mentioned above, this was one of the reasons why the Old Bes-Medresh ultimately fell into disrepair.

As clearly emerges from the Pinkas of the bes-medresh, the site of today's Great Synagogue was once occupied by a bes-medresh. Much later, it appears that a wooden synagogue also stood on that site. In the years 5511–5512 [1751–1752], the gaboim [wardens] of the bes-medresh are mentioned. We also learn from the Pinkasim of the Chevra Tehillim [a society dedicated to reciting Psalms] and the Maggidei Tehillim [preachers or reciters of Psalms], as well as from a tas [inscription plaque], that by the year 5526 [1766], a synagogue was already in existence.

According to a tradition passed down by the earlier elders, the wooden synagogue was destroyed by fire. In the year 5531 [1771], the Białystoker alufim [honorary leaders or distinguished elders] traveled to Tykocin, seat of the regional governing community, to request support for rebuilding the Old Synagogue. It was evidently rebuilt^[e] in 5532 [1772], but only as a men's synagogue – apparently under the influence of the bes-medresh.

According to an old tradition preserved by the elders of Białystok, Duke Jan Klemens Branicki – to whom both Tykocin and Białystok belonged – commissioned synagogues to be built at his own expense in both towns, following a single plan and style. He provided the construction materials, but his architect miscalculated the interior dimensions of the Tykocin Synagogue, resulting in the Old Białystok Synagogue being smaller than its counterpart in Tykocin.

However, in truth, this was not a mistake, since the Białystok community at the time was significantly smaller than that of Tykocin. Moreover, it is not accurate to say that the duke built both synagogues – as we see, Białystok had to appeal to the kehile of Tykocin for support in constructing its synagogue.

One of the most important entries in the Pinkas of the bes-medresh concerns the founding and activities of the Chevra Ner Tamid – a strict, pious, aristocratic, and closed fellowship – truly unique in its kind. To admit a new member, a formal asifat-ha-chaverim [assembly of the members] had to be convened, and the candidate elected by majority vote.

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He was required to have been married for at least three years. The asifat-ha-chaverim would assess how much he should contribute to the society, and how much he should pay in advance dues.

At minimum, the candidate was required to offer as advance dues a golden coin (rendl) and a shteyn of khalev [a standardized block of tallow], purchase matzot, and host a meal for the members – without any exception, come what may. And this was strictly upheld.

As we see in the pinkas, even Rabbi Elyakum Getzel Meir – later the rabbi of Shishlevits [Svisloch] and Białystok – had to pay his ma'ot kadima [advance dues] before being admitted as a member, in keeping with the currency standards of the bes-medresh at that time, when a large Polish coin^[f] or even a half Polish coin was considered valid tender, as we noted earlier.

This gives a sense of how substantial the fee was to be accepted as a member of the Chevra Ner Tamid of the Old Bes-Medresh, and how strict the oversight was. The procedure for admitting a new member had to be carried out exclusively in the bes-medresh or in the Jewish community chamber – anywhere else, it was null and void.

Even after admission, the new member's ballot was not placed in the kalfi [voting box] during his first year. Upon his death, a minyan [quorum] of members was sent to his house of mourning to study for the full thirty days – but only if he held the title Morenu and was able to study a page of Gemara.

It gives the impression that this chevra resembled a kind of Freemason-like league or a closed aristocratic club, in which ordinary people – mere mortals – had no access.

It is remarkable that even the well-known wealthy men of that time were not admitted into the Ner Tamid society. Nor are the rabbis who served as rabbinic judges mentioned – except for a decision recorded in the year 5562 [1802], which granted a special privilege to the Rav Av Beis Din and the maggid meisharim [preacher of righteousness and uprightness]: they were exempt from paying for an aliyah. The ranks of the various gaboim were strictly ordered and carefully maintained.

On the other hand, there was a figure such as Rabbi Yehoshua Heshel Halpern (known as Heshel Medalshtshik), one of the most prominent members of the Chevra Ner Tamid – though that was already under Russian rule.

In general, the Old Bes-Medresh preserved the traditional rhythm of study, prayer and communal life, with societies dedicated to learning Shas, Mishnayot, Midrash, Ein Yaakov, and Shulchan Arukh. Under the influence of the sermons of a maggid meisharim, the common folk engaged in his studies of Chumash, Nevi'im, Ketuvim, Ein Yaakov with rabbinic commentary, and participated in the recitation of Tehillim and in prayer according to the nusach^[g] Shomrim La-Boker and similar rites.

At the same time, the Jews of Białystok lived an urban life alongside their non-Jewish neighbors, participating in municipal administration

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and fulfilling all civic obligations in accordance with the Branicki regulations. Yet they also maintained an independent communal life of their own, with elected parnasim [communal leaders or trustees] of the month and year, alongside rabbis, shochtim [ritual slaughterers], and other klei kodesh^[4] [sacred officials], with a communal shtibl, a korobke [tax box], and without dependence on the government. As we have seen from the Branicki regulations, all of this was officially accepted.

Indeed, until a certain point – namely, until 1795 – the Białystoker Jewish community was, in certain respects, dependent on the Tykocin district community. The Jews of Białystok had to pay government taxes, such as the poll tax and similar levies, through Tykocin, and were required to provide contributions for its needs and to purchase etrogim [ritual citrons used during the Jewish festival of Sukkot] through it.

Tiktin [Tykocin] also served as Białystok's representative in the Va'ad Arba Aratzot, the Council of the Four Lands [central Jewish governing body in Poland from the 16^th to 18^th centuries]. Białystok stood under the supreme authority of the Tykocin Rav Av Beis Din, who was considered the minyan – the overarching rabbinic authority – for all communities and settlements in the Tykocin district.

According to a regulation of the Council of the Four Lands, the Jews of Białystok did not have the right to appoint their own Rav Av Beis Din [chief rabbinical judge], but only dayanim [rabbinical judges] and Roshei Av Beis Dinim^[5] [heads of rabbinical courts]. And indeed, we find no evidence that Białystok had its own Rav Av Beis Din during the first hundred years of its existence.

Only gradually, as the city grew wealthier and larger than Tykocin, did Białystok begin to free itself from the hegemony of the Tykocin district community – until, in the year 5531 [1771], Tykocin transferred to it 59 yishuvim [settlements]. Although, according to the wording of the Pinkas of Tykocin, this was done in response to the repeated and urgent requests of the alufei ve-roznei^[h] of Białystok, it is hard to believe that Tykocin yielded so easily.

Anyone who reads the tone of its strict and dictatorial formulations in earlier dealings with subordinate communities will find it hard to believe that Tykocin would have yielded and granted Białystok's request merely because the town had begun building its synagogue and had become needy.

In truth, Tykocin sensed that Białystok had already outgrown it in economic and material stature. It therefore extended derekh eretz– a gesture of respect – and had, earlier in the year 5510 [1750], already conceded in the rabbinic matter: allowing Białystok to have its own Rav Ha-Gaon [a title of honor for a distinguished rabbinic authority], in partnership with Khoroshtsh [Choroszcz].

Author's footnotes:

1. Encyclopedia Judaica, volume 4, p. 471 Return
2. From the outset, I assumed that this was the celebration held when the bes-medresh was rebuilt in stone. However, its upper room, dated to the year 5527 [1767], suggests that it was still the same wooden bes- medresh. Return
3. Also in the Pinkas of the bes-medresh (folio 34 verso), in the year 5574 [1814] – in the month of Marcheshvan. Return
4. It appears that even in the old Białystok community, the chazzan [cantor] played no significant role. He is not mentioned anywhere, except for R' Yisroel Chazzan [Khozn], whose gravestone, dated the 18^th of Elul in the year 5599 [1839], includes the inscription: “A pure and upright man, God-fearing, whose voice rang like a bell as he entered the sanctuary – the rabbinic master, our teacher Rabbi Yisrael, son of our teacher Rabbi Yissachar.” Alter Sapirstein, the founder of the Morgen Zhurnal in New York, was his grandson. Return
5. See: Simon [Shimen] Dubnow, Pinkas HaMedinah, vol. 7, p.244 Return

1. Contents in [ ] are from the translator. Return
2. It could be the abbreviation for בבית יעקב אין סוף, “…in the house of Jacob, without end” Return
3. חברה קדישא גחש”א = Chevra Kadisha Gachsha = Chevra Kadisha Gemilas Chesed shel Emes [Holy Burial Society for Genuine Charity] Return
4. Beis Sheni = [lit. “Second House”] traditionally refers to the Second Temple in Jerusalem, destroyed in 70 CE. In Eastern European Jewish communal usage, however, the term also denotes a secondary prayer room or annex affiliated with a main bes-medresh (study hall).
   I had to translate this convoluted and obviously contradictory sentence quite freely. It still refers to the Old Bes-Medresh, which apparently had a vacant space where, at least initially, efforts were made to establish a women's section. Later, however, the project was blocked, and the space was repurposed and designated as the so-called “Beis Sheni.” Return
5. The term “oyfmoyern” is used here, which suggests that the synagogue was built of stone. Return
6. The term “godl” or “gadol” (גדול), literally meaning “large” or “great” in Hebrew and Yiddish, is used idiomatically in communal records to denote a coin – often one of larger denomination or value. In this context, “[poylish] godl” likely refers to a Polish gulden or similar high-value coin. While “godl” may also denote a groschen or generic coin, its usage here suggests a substantial monetary unit, possibly gold or silver, employed as a communal standard for dues or entrance fees. The term reflects both linguistic flexibility and the fluidity of currency terminology in 18^th-century Jewish life. Return
7. nusach or nusekh = liturgical tradition or textual version of Jewish prayer; denotes the specific wording, structure, and sometimes melody of a prayer rite as practiced by a particular community. Return
8. alufei ve-roznei: traditional honorifics for communal dignitaries, often used in petitions and communal records to denote respected lay leaders. Return

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