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[Page 82]

Public Life

The Kremenets Community Under Polish Rule

by Munia Katz (Haifa)

Translated by David Dubin


With the establishment of Polish rule in Kremenets in 1920, various agencies, assemblies and committees were active in town. Only in 1928, however, under the rule governing religious minority autonomy did Kremenets, like other towns, develop an organized Jewish Kehilla (community).

The first kehilla committee was elected in 1928 to a four-year term. The election was by secret, direct ballot of male voters age 21 and older. The first head of the kehilla was Abraham Vaynberg, a Zionist, one of the honored elders of the city. The committee was an official institution, which had specific authority under the law. Among its duties were to deal with Jewish issues and education. Beyond those responsibilities the committee also dealt practically with social services, health and vocational training, because the committee saw the vital importance of alleviating poverty. From the budget of 1932 published in full in the Kremenetser Shtime, we see the kehilla was directly involved in:
  1. the slaughterhouse
  2. the bathhouse
  3. the cemetery
  4. the hospital
  5. the rabbinate
  6. the “talmud torah”
  7. the home for the aged
  8. housing guests
  9. registering the Jewish population (births, deaths, marriages, etc.)
  10. caring for Jewish soldiers on leave
  11. caring for Jewish captives
  12. occasional social work as required.
Moreover, the kehilla committee supported other organizations like: “Toz,” the ORT school, the charity fund, the sports organization “Hashmonaim,” and others.

In order to cover its budget expenses the kehilla committee utilized fees from the enterprises it controlled (butchers' fees, cemetery fees, registration fees and the like). Thus direct taxes were charged to the Jews of the city. There were over 1000 items on the 1932 budget.

The kehilla committee worked on various projects without undue publicity. In its meetings it would decide on issues of the day, and its personnel would carry out the decisions.

Unusual problems, like distributing wood during the winter or distributing matzot (the maot khitin campaign) and potatoes for Passover would provoke great behind the scenes wrangling. This was also true when it came to choosing a new Rabbi or ritual slaughterer. The kehilla committee would also call public informational meetings in the Great Synagogue, or the new study house “Kozatski,” where stormy, protracted arguments would take place. Decisions, sometimes contradictory, were reached. The decisions were not binding on the committee, which always retained its own authority by virtue of its elected status, but it would generally consider the decisions of the voting public taken during these meetings.


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There is no doubt that the kehilla committee was very influential in the life of the public in town. It was natural that the political organizations in town tried to influence the kehilla committee and even to rein in its power. There was no shortage of struggles for power by powerful individuals. The community was, moreover, quite accustomed to bitter political battles, especially between the Zionist representatives with M. Goldring and Perlmuter and, against them, the apolitical citizens under Sh. Brodski and his colleagues whose opponents saw them as tools of the government. The strife within the community was even reported by the local media.

After the death of Abraham Vaynberg in 1930, a second election for the kehilla committee was organized, and those elected were: Moshe Kapuza, Meir Goldring, Dr. Zalman Schaynberg, Tsvi Barshop, Avigdor Perlmuter, Rabbi Mandiuk, Sh. Brodski and the representative of the neighboring village Pochayev. The second head of the committee was Avigdor (Zeydi) Perlmuter.

In the next elections in 1934, the third head of the committee was elected – Sh. Brodski. He served in this capacity until 1937.

From the committee's official inception, the Polish authorities inspected its actions, and they well knew how to use the internal struggles to their advantage. The climax came in 1937, with a struggle that broke out between the sides and the rabbis of the town took an active part. (Rabbi Mandiuk on the side of the Zionists and the religious Judge Lerner on the side of Brodski et al.) The regional government official suspended the elected kehilla committee with the rationalization that the internal struggles were endangering the normal functioning of the community and the committee's activities. The government appointed the engineer Fred Rozin (the son-in-law of the old industrialist Yisrael Margalit) to the office of “commissar” of the community with several advisors at his side. The most active and dedicated among them was Ratsenfeld, formerly a chef in the village of Shepetovka.

The engineer Rozin was far from the religious life, was educated in an assimilationist environment, was a reserve officer in the Polish forces and was trusted by the authorities. Moreover, the government entrusted the community's authority to him. It must be noted that Rozin fulfilled his duties dutifully and with understanding, organizing the communal institutions and even managed to foment peace between the warring factions. As a result, in the elections of 1938, a united list of candidates appeared.

In the fourth committee there served: Getsi Klorfayn, Tsvi Barshop, L. Krivin, Y. Gintsburg, A. Maystelman, Yisrael Margalit, Rabbi Mandiuk, and the representative of the village of Pochayev. The fourth head of the committee was Yisrael Margalit. This committee functioned until the Second World War, until the arrival of the Russians in Kremenets on September 20, 1939.

The secretary of the kehilla committee was David Leviton, and after his death in 1934, his son Ariyeh Leviton took his place.

Light and shadows appeared in the workings and daily activity of the Kremenets kehilla, but during all the years of its existence it served as a true advocate and powerful fortress for the Jewish Community's autonomy in Poland, and it succeeded in going beyond the bounds set by the authorities.



[Page 84]

The Jews in the Town

by Zev Shumski (Tel Aviv)

Translated by David Dubin


The Jewry of Kremenets always took an active role in the town, whether in its administration or its organization. During transitions of rulership, the various governments could not ignore the Jewish populace, and they co-opted its notables in the town's administration. In the years prior to the First World War three Jews served on the town council: Yosef Bitiker, Yisrael Margalit and Mikhael Shumski. The friendly relations assured the people that the general atmosphere in town was more liberal than under previous administrations under the Czar, and anti-Semitism was not prominent in town. Jews paid town taxes and benefited in one way or another from its services as citizens, merchants and businessmen. However, achieving public office was not even a dream…

During World War I the mayors of the town were the Catholic Priest Bilatski and after him the Ukrainian Tseyts. At that time Ezriel Kremenetski arrived in town, and he served as assistant mayor, and, after a certain time, as mayor. In the struggles between the Russians, Poles and Ukrainians for influence in the town, together with the bitter changes in government authority, the Jews were a neutral and steadying force, and it was natural that a Jew would rise to the rank of mayor.

Under Polish rule there served as mayor in succession: Reyveski, Bartok, Zelevski and Yan Bufra - the latter for many years, until the Soviets captured the town. During this period twelve Jews from various factions served on the town council. Every few years new elections would be held, but, notably, very few personnel changes were made between one election and the next. On the council served (with minor changes from one council to the next):
  1. Meir Goldring – Zionist faction
  2. Dr. Zalman Schaynberg – Zionist faction
  3. Zeydi Perlmuter – Zionist faction
  4. Khayim Rozenberg (1927-1930) – the Vocational Union
  5. Abba Lisi – the Workers faction
  6. David Goldenberg – the Workers faction
  7. Yitskhak Yosef Alterman – the Workers faction
  8. Maystelman – the Workers faction
  9. Khayim Bakimer – the Merchants faction
  10. Shaul Brodski – the Merchants faction
  11. Moshe Gershtayn – the Young Merchants faction
  12. Mikhael Shumski – Independent
In the seven member town administration under Polish rule served:

  1. Ezriel Kremenetski
  2. Shlomo Fingerhut



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The foot of Mt. Bona


The various parties formed a Jewish coalition voting bloc except on matters of particular parochial importance, when the delegates of the Jewish vocational parties sometimes voted with the Polish and Ukrainian factions against the other Jewish parties.

Jewish officers were not appointed in town even under the Poles, other than one Jewish tax collector and the town power plant where Jews served as engineers, fee collectors and specialized workmen because the plant was originally under Jewish ownership and was transferred to the town with its workforce intact. Jews did serve the town as suppliers and middlemen. Also the town had no choice in that several special services could only be provided by Jews: dyers, tinsmiths, builders, plumbers, electricians, locksmiths, carpenters, coachmen, and even street repairers. Especially notable was Khayim Leyzer Lamfel, street subcontractor, who would deal only with Jewish workers, relatives and others, who were expert at paving roads and paths.

The town council meetings were held in public and sometimes drew large crowds, especially on matters of monetary allotments, which aroused great public controversy, and even sometimes were debated in the Jewish newspapers. The town allocated set sums for Jewish public institutions like the old age home, the Jewish hospital, the ORT school, the bathhouse, the orphanage and others, and the allocations engendered widespread public struggles. In the last years before the Holocaust, an anti-Semitic spirit entered Kremenets, and from 1930 on the deprivation of rights, alienation and clashes grew.


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Town Hall


I could not complete my overview of the Jewish role in town without mentioning the town secretary, Strumchinski, a Pole who held the position for decades, first under Russian rule and later under the Poles. He did not love the Jews, but he loved their money and was known as a bribe taker. The Jews appreciated this and “took care” of him so that he would take care of their municipal issues. This “honored” arrangement held under the different regimes. He was also an officer in the fire brigades (among whom were many Jews), loved his uniform, and was thus called “General Strumchinski.”

With the Russian conquest of the town (Sept. 22, 1939) a Jew, Moshe Sugan, a local Communist, was appointed mayor, and soon thereafter his successor, the Ukrainian Kustriuva who was not a town resident, was appointed. In that time period a Jew, Avraham Rayz, was appointed chief of police; he had previously spent many years in prison on the charge of being a Communist.



[Page 87]

Synagogues and Houses of Study

by A. Gluzman (Afula)

Translated by David Dubin


Synagogues and houses of study held a very honored place in the lives of Kremenets Jewry, and they played many roles in different situations. First and foremost, of course, they were houses of prayer. Jews came there to pray thrice daily, on Sabbaths and holidays. Secondly, they were used as venues for celebrations. It was the news center of the city, a place to discuss politics. Each class and social group had its own prayer hall. Class distinctions could be distinguished by the synagogue one frequented. Groups without their own synagogue building would at least have their own minyan (prayer quorum).

During the work week the Jews were struggling in a battle for their very sustenance. But when the Sabbath or holidays arrived, all the stress and troubles were forgotten. At that time all were partners in the restfulness and joy of the day, partners in hopes and celebrations, sharing the “honors” of the liturgy and Torah readings, and peace and tranquility reigned throughout the congregation. If there was an occasional disagreement, it was only for the sake of heaven.

The scene on a Sabbath morning was unforgettable, when the entire length of Shiroka Street began to fill with streams of honored householders, tradesmen, merchants in Sabbath garb, holding their children's hands on their way to Sabbath prayers. All the stores were closed. Each person went to his own synagogue, to his own permanent place. At around noon, people left synagogue and had their secular conversations, discussions about synagogue goings-on, giving reviews of the cantor's or preacher's performance, and they would part with the “good Sabbath” greeting, go home to recite the Kiddush prayer and enjoy the restfulness of “the day more honored than all others.”

The Great Synagogue was the foremost synagogue. It was actually considered among the most beautiful in Poland. It was housed in a grand and exalted building, which was adorned by a surrounding stone-, paved courtyard. The architecture was beautiful. There was no real intimacy of unity. The congregation was varied and not always the same. The honored householders did not pray there, rather the nuveaux riches, young married men, artisans and travelers; cantors and famous singers would lead the services on Saturdays. There were also regular cantors like Cantor Sherman and the brother of the famous Kusuvetski. Cantor Sherman was a fine looking, tall man, clothed in modern clothing with an aristocratic air. He had a fine tenor voice. When he appeared wrapped in his prayer shawl and begun with his powerful voice the prayer “How great are your tents, Jacob,” a silence fell upon the crowd of congregants. At his own slow pace he would descend the stairs and cross the synagogue between the aisles of congregants to his place next to the Holy Ark which itself was a work of fine art.

The synagogue was full of glory during Hanukah when, according to custom, the first candle was lit with song and instrumental music. Great crowds streamed in to hear the celebrations and music of the musical family of “Hatskele and Anzele” the violinists and their sons the flutists, the singers Fingerhut and company who would sing “These candles…” and “Maoz Tsur (My rock of salvation).” Then the large menorah was lit, and immediately a multitude of electric menorahs would light the area.

Beautiful experiences and cherished memories of childhood were associated with this synagogue. How wonderful was the tradition of escorting a bride to the Sabbath services during her first week of marriage!


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A special dress and headdress were prepared for the bride for this auspicious occasion. When all the congregants had already assembled in the synagogue a stream of marchers left the bride's home accompanied by her in-laws, friends and others all dressed in especially fine clothing – and in the center the bride's shiny countenance, happy and serene. From all the surrounding houses the young matron was accompanied by love and good wishes in honor of her first visit to the synagogue. In the synagogue she was brought to the eastern wall of the women's section, and hundreds of women raised their eyes admiringly to the beautiful and graceful bride and thus welcomed her to the bosom of the holy community.

The Great Synagogue also served as a meeting hall for public assemblies, celebrations and greeting of important guests.

The “Kuzatsky” Study Hall. This study hall was completely different, second in size of the Kremenets synagogues. Several hundred congregants came on Sabbaths and during the week. The main hall was large as were its windows. On the walls were drawings of animals and birds in shiny colors, which inspired a distinctive frame of mind. Many explanations were common among the populace regarding the origin of the synagogue's name, among them the thought that people rushed through their prayers there like Cossacks… Here also the congregation was many-faceted: working men and young merchants, peddlers, carters, people without specific occupations and some travelers. The women's section divided the hall into two, taking the form of a roof-covered balcony in one third of the hall. There was always noise there. People coming and going. Many minyanim (prayer quorums) prayed there in succession, and if one tarried there was a second and third waiting. The prayers were recited aloud, with the voices heard from one end of the synagogue to the other. There were large tables arranged along the length of the hall, each serving as a meeting place for specific groups. Along the first table people read newspapers, while at the second ruled the Zionists of the town where Torah study was not pursued, but rather Zionists spoke and preachers gave their sermons, the people of the town being among the best listeners.

On winter nights the storekeepers and workers who had frozen during the day came to the study hall, quickly washed their hands, wiped them in the moist, long towel and rushed to warm their bodies and souls, and especially to enjoy the camaraderie of their fellow Jews, to hear a good word, some news or to read the synagogue bulletin.

The most interesting figure in that synagogue was the cantor, Reb Yisrael. A tall Jew with a beautiful, dark beard flowing over his shirt and always dressed in a clean suit. He was the assistant to the cantor Moshe-Khayim. He would always be found at the synagogue involved in spiritual matters. He was beloved and respected by all. His sprightly step and kind countenance to all engendered honor and respect in those who encountered him.

A special event was the “women's section” during the high holidays. Next to the long tables sat the poorest women who could not read from the prayer book. At the head of the table would sit a woman who knew the prayers, and they would read the prayers and supplications aloud, show the words to the assembled women, indicate when to cry… Not one would begin to cry before the right time at which point cries and wailing would come forth from hundreds of women. The men underneath (the balcony) would pound angrily on the tables and would scream upwards, “women, women, not yet…” The cries would then die down slowly. Pure, dear souls. This is how they spent their holidays. Later at night they would go at their pace through the alleyways of the marketplace to their homes where their families would be waiting patiently for their dinner.

The Old Study Hall. Peaceful and patient were those who prayed in the Old Study Hall. This was the place of prayer of the owners of the nicer homes, wood merchants, wholesalers like the Bukimer, Lastsuver, Kapozer and Katz families and the butcher Leyb.


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From among the Jewish intelligentsia, Dr. Landsberg prayed here. Approximately 150 people comprised the congregation. It was the only study hall on Shiroka Street without a women's section, and the only study hall with a rabbi, the elderly rabbi from Krilovits.
[Translation Editor's Note: This town now is known as Kurilovtsy. It is at 49 10 N, 27 59 E, 120.1 miles ESE of Kremenets.]

Here also young workers prayed, and each Sabbath they read the Torah portion themselves, usually in the home of Eliezer Vakman. There they divided the honors of being called to the Torah, and after the additional service, they made kiddush on wine. “Sabbath and holiday Jews…” the sexton of the study hall, a wood merchant, saw as his special privilege to underwrite all the synagogue's expenses.

Glory and honor were poured on the synagogue the evening before Yom Kippur, the night of Kol Nidrei. In the “plush” were laid out boxes of soil in which large wax candles were set up. The congregants were in their places. A deathly silence took hold over the small synagogue, each person silently praying the “pure prayer.” The old rabbi ascended the platform and quietly began his sermon, words of rebuke appropriate to the time and ending with a “Happy New Year” blessing to the congregation. The congregation listened to the rabbi with awed honor and an uplifted spirit.


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Elijah's chair (for circumcisions)
in the Great Synagogue


The priestly blessing in the Old Study Hall was beautiful. It was pronounced in a special way by the priest Reb Itsi Skurnik, a merchant from Nofkatora, and his sons. He was a fine looking Jew with a long beard, wrapped in a prayer shawl with a large collar-piece. He and his five sons stood for the laving of their hands before the priestly blessing. Three Levites with special cups in their hands poured water on the priests' hand, and when Reb Itzi stood among them surrounded by his five sons and intoning the special tune to bless the holy congregation - a textile merchant the rest of the year – he was wrapped in glory and splendor like a High Priest…


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After the services the congregation would surround the elderly Dr. Landsberg to hear from his lips about the Land of Israel, which he had seen in his travels. Like an ever-strengthening fountain his stories streamed forward, and the congregation never tired or wearied to hear the man who had the privilege to see with his own eyes the wondrous sights in our glorious Zion…

“Beit Tefila”. Follow Synagogue Row to the second merchants' synagogue – “Beit Tefila (House of Prayer)”. Here the Kitay, Landsberg and other similar families prayed. “Beit Tefila” was always full of people praying from wall to wall. Here also was the news center of town. People wrapped in prayer shawls stood outside in the “plush” and the narrow alleyway, groups of people would talk about secular topics and the goings-on in town. For many years the sexton was the iron merchant Kitay, who also had a traditional hold on reciting the “Ata Horeisa” prayer on the night of the Festival of the Law. In fact, the younger members once tried to change this tradition and one of the wealthy merchants even paid a large sum for the honor, but at that moment some important members got up and forcefully took the elder Kitay and brought him to the prayer stand. Thus the “putsch” failed… and the younger generation was utterly defeated; apparently great rebellions were not Kremenets' forte…

Huge throngs streamed to “Beit Tefila” on the night of Slichos. Here the Slichos were chanted in a different tune, and the echo of the prayers with their haunting melody resounded a great distance.

The Kloiz (private study hall) of Itsi Baderik. Why this synagogue was called a Kloiz and who was Itsi Baderik – no one in this generation had any idea. It was only known that after it burnt down it was built anew as a synagogue for young merchants and artisans. Berl Royv, a textile merchant, served as sexton. The atmosphere was light. There were members who were light-hearted and appreciative of a good joke. More than once they tried to derail the cantor in his Sabbath eve tune toward the holiday prayer tune. The elders naturally objected, but they could not hide their smiles over the cantor's exasperation in his attempts to return to the Sabbath eve tune.

The Small Synagogue of the Carters. In the Great Synagogue's courtyard, along one of the long corridors, was the Small Synagogue of the town's porters. Each day of the week they would assemble, with difficulty, a prayer quorum, but on the Sabbath there gathered all the laborers in town who comprised two groups: On one hand, the young laborers who formed a type of cooperative of owners of large wagons which transported goods from trains to town. They did not deal in small contracts or in transporting packages and bags. The elder carters did this work. Both groups comprised powerful, strong-shouldered men with a warm, Jewish heart, always ready to help a fellow Jew. Of course, the leaders of the synagogue came from the elder group from which were chosen the four sextons to whom all paid heed. After the six day work week the carters came to their small synagogue. Their boots were cleaned and polished, their trousers were folded above their boots, and they were dressed in their wedding kapotes (long coats). Early Sabbath morning they said Psalms here and the finest readings took place here. From all over town people would stream to the Carters' Synagogue to recite Psalms before the prayers. With a pleasant tune and especial concentration, even without understanding the meaning of the words, the simple town folk would repeat Psalm after Psalm for each day of the week. Also, Sabbath afternoons, after nap time, people would hear the Torah portion of the week from the preacher Hirsh Itsik. An elderly Jew with a gray beard, he tried to perform the special good deed of educating simple folk about the Torah using books of legends from the Midrash “Ein Yaakov.” For them this was a true “Sabbath enjoyment,” a recompense for and lessening of their hard work during the previous six day week.


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Thus they would sit until nightfall, and only then did they pray the afternoon prayer and they ate their third Sabbath meal as prescribed, drinking a mouthful of good whiskey and washing it down with challah and salted, pickled fish. After singing and the evening prayer everyone would return to his home and his labors.

The Small Synagogue of the Tailors. Here the tailors and furriers who worked for the area farmers prayed on Sabbaths and holidays. All the days of the week the weaving machines rattled in the small factories while they traveled between the fairs in the cities and towns to sell their wares. On the Sabbath, after their foreign travels through snow and rain, they congregated in their miniature temple, telling each other their adventures and news, and after prayers would accompany each other to recite kiddush over the cup of wine. Among them were also some who knew how to sing. Next to their machinery they would sing folk songs and the most beautiful cantorial pieces; they were actually considered among the most knowledgeable people in the city regarding the cantorial arts.

The Small Synagogue of the Butchers. Its location was the street of the butchers beside the large slaughterhouses. Here there prayed the butchers and the ritual slaughterers who worked with them, powerful and strong like cedars. On the Sabbath they came all dressed up with the wealthy Leybchi at their head. Frequently there erupted arguments about issues like the reliability of a butcher, communal elections, etc. The arguments were, however, for the sake of heaven, and the synagogue united them all.

There is no describing the happiness that prevailed on the Festival of the Law. Drinking was the order of the day, and more whiskey was consumed here than anywhere else.

The Hassidic Synagogue. Several generations before, the Grand Rabbi of Kremenets Reb Mordekhai'li prayed here, and since then it was called the Hassidic Synagogue. In the last several decades this was the synagogue of the rabbi from Piotrakov who lived right next door.
[Translation Editor's Note: This town now is known as Petrikov. It is at 49 32 N, 25 35 E, 39.6 miles south of Kremenets.]
The rabbi would sometimes come to learn Torah in the synagogue, and this was the only location in the city where nightly learning took place. Also during the day a stray Jew would come in to “grab” a page of Gemara. The table was set full of books. Along the walls were set stands for individual learners.

The Synagogue of Nishvits.

[Translation Editor's Note: This town now is known as Nesvich. It is at 50 38 N, 25 06 E, 45.8 miles northwest of Kremenets.]
This synagogue which stood in the courtyard of the aforementioned also, reportedly, had been associated with the followers of the Rabbi of Nishvits. It was even told that among the Zizith fringes of the Nishvitsites there was a string of blue, of which only the Rabbi of Nishvits knew the secret of dyeing. All this was, however, in the distant past. In modern times the congregants of the Nishvits Synagogue did not differ in their liturgy or customs from the other synagogues in town.

There was one Hassidic rabbi in town, Rabbi Moshkeh'le, but he did not have a “Hassidic Table ( tisch )” and he did not take “contributions.” He lived in a fine apartment and had a personal synagogue where his sons and close relatives prayed.

A private synagogue such as this also belonged to Reb Hirsh Mendel Rokhel, a well-to-do merchant and head of a ramified family. The majority of the family were Zionists, while the remainder wanted to hear nothing of Zionism. Reb Hirsch Mendel erected a synagogue in this courtyard for the prodigal family members who, due to his honor, would come inside with him on Sabbaths and holidays to pray.

* * *


This is a summary of the synagogues and study halls of the Kremenets community. Inside these walls of their miniature temples our ancestors for many generations spent their sad and happy occasions, here they wove the tapestries of their lives, which were viciously torn by the murderers.

[Page 92]

The Eighteen Synagogues

Yonatan Kucher (Tel Aviv)

Translated to English by David Dubin & Thia Persoff


These I shall remember and for them my soul shall be desolate: the synagogues and study rooms in our town, Kremenets, where a voice of prayer never ceased, whether on a Sabbath, holiday or a simple weekday; Now they are destroyed and are desolate, along with the destruction of the community.

I said I would erect a monument to them; I will list in a book the synagogues that existed in our town in the last few years before the Holocaust. They numbered eighteen:
  1. The Synagogue in the suburb of Vishnevets, in the home of Fayvel Feldman.
    [Translation Editor's Note: Vishnevets is at 49 54 N / 25 45 E, 13.9 miles south of Kremenets.]
  2. The Synagogue of the Judge Yisrael'ikl (Lerner), in the home of Moshe Kapozer.
  3. The Synagogue of Hirsh Mendel Rokhel, on Slovatski Street
  4. The new Study Hall (“Kazatske Study Hall”) on Shiroka Street
  5. “Yankele's Kloyz” on Kladakova Street
  6. The Kloyz of Bedrik on Kravatska Street
  7. The Synagogue of the Tailors (“Schneider Schul'khel”) on Kravatska Street
  8. “Beth Tefila” on Kladakova Street
  9. The Old Study Hall on Shiroka Street
  10. The Synagogue of the Butchers (“Katsavim-shtibel”) on the slaughterhouse street
  11. The Synagogue of the Rozin Khasidim (“Nishvitser Shul'khel”) in the home of Yitskhak Bat
  12. The Synagogue of the Khasidim (“Khasidish Shul'khel”)
  13. The Synagogue of the “Magid” (“Magid Shul'khel”) in the courtyard of the Great Synagogue
  14. The Great Synagogue
  15. The Synagogue of the Community (“Kahal Shul'khel”), next to the Great Synagogue
  16. The Synagogue of the Tailors (“Schnayder Shul'khel”), next to the Great Synagogue
  17. The Synagogue of the Dubna suburb
  18. The Synagogue of Reb Moshkeh'li

The list is arranged by street, from one end of town to another, and includes the semi-private places of prayer.



[Page 92]

The Economic Situation Between the Two World Wars

Leon Hokhberg and Zev Shumski

Translated to English by David Dubin and Thia Persoff


With the end of the First World War and after the era of Petlura and Soviet rule, the town of Kremenets fell to Polish governance. The Jewish population, which was devastated during the war, entered a new stage in its economic life. The economic framework of the Jewish settlement in the Czarist era – the majority occupied in trade, a substantial minority in crafts or manufacture and a minority in free professions – did not change much in the beginning of Polish rule. The small stores and wholesalers' warehouses reopened, as did the craftsmen's workshops. Some factories reopened and new ones were started.


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In the years 1919 – 1925, there was a great demand for merchandise. Kremenets Jews were the main suppliers then, and so, directed the economic life of the area. They also imported goods from the western regions of Poland, and exported agricultural products. Inflation of the Polish currency caused a brisk turnover of merchandise; it could be said that this was a period of prosperity for the Jews of Kremenets. But, it did not last long.

In the year 1922 the Polish currency started to stabilize, which brought stability in commerce too. The business cycle normalized and the need for financial credit grew. At that time two Jewish owned banks opened in Kremenets:

  1. The Bank of Mutual Credit, under the direction of Ruben Goldenberg, which drew its resources from the deposits of its members, from membership dues, and loans from the Warsaw central bank of mutual credit.
  2. A fund for loans without interest (“gmilut khasadim kase”) for those who need assistance by means of credit. This fund was also supported by the center in Warsaw and money from the “Joint”, though even those two organizations were not able to supply sufficiently, the credit needed for the business cycle.

In spite of the difficulty in adjusting to the new conditions, that period of 1919 – 1925, looks to be the most normal, economic wise, for Polish Jews, Kremenets included. The Jews of the town and its surrounding area got close to the land and merchandised its products. During the reign of the Czar, Jews were not permitted to own land, or to live in villages. Now that this edict was rescinded, some of the Kremenets Jews purchased farms (like the brothers Blit and others) and some leased them. The grain business, for local [sale] and export, was entirely in the hands of the Jews until 1933, when Polish cooperatives were established to sell agricultural products, and most of the grain selling business went to them. Jews were involved in utilizing the natural resources of the forests. Most forests in the area belonged to the Lyceum (college), in which many Jews were employed as experts, business managers, and lumber salesmen. The same was true of forests that were in private ownership; in them, too, many Jews were involved in utilizing parts of the forests and as owners or leasers of lumber mills (a large and well known lumber mill in Verba, was owned by Jews and was used for a long time as a base for Kibbutz “Ha'Khalutz” in Verba).

[Translation Editor's Note: Verba is at 50 17 N / 25 37 E, 13.4 miles NNW of Kremenets.]


Most of the leather and linen business was in Jewish hands, as were the industrial plants, most of which employed Jewish laborers: The flourmills in the area were leased by Jews, including the two in town (owned by Ovadis and by Brodski), the plant for production of peat, Khayim Grinberg's chalk factory, Vaysman's brick factory, Frishberg's and Greenberg's two large plants for manufacturing shoes, confections factory, printing presses, etc. Some of the factories employed tens of workers. Quite a few were building contractors, some very large and prominent. Most of the crafts were in Jewish hands: carpentry, metal smiths, tinsmiths, tailoring, shoe repairs, teamsters, barbers, and confectionaries. Those too, used hired employees. Most of the hotels were in Jewish hands, as well as transportation in all its modes, in the town and between towns: carters, teamsters, drivers, porters, and water-carriers, like it used to be in the old days. As a result of the increased numbers of laborers and hired workers in industry, crafts, and commerce, trade guilds were formed, as was a municipal committee that developed wide professional and cultural activities and even established its own sports club. The trade guilds were mostly under the influence of the Communist party, but the “Khalutz”, too, tried to establish its influence among them. In a later period, under the initiative and management of Niunya Shtern, the carpentry shops got organized (tens of them with hundreds of workers) into a cooperative, for the purpose of buying raw materials and selling the finished products, mainly furniture.


[Page 94]

Click here to extend the picture - kre094s.jpg [3 KB]
Reception for Pilsudski
at the Great Synagogue, 1922


Jews were not able to penetrate into the bureaucracies of the town or national governments. The Polish authorities prevented Jews from obtaining those positions. The only exception was the electric power station, because Jews previously owned it, and when it was taken over by the town's government, its workers went with it.

In 1925 there were signs pointing towards currency deflation in Poland. The government started to confiscate the means of circulation from the hands of the citizens, by laying heavy taxes on goods and property, and particularly on the businesses, as they were mostly in the hands of the Jews. There was nothing easier then loading a wagon with the merchandise of a grocer who was delinquent in paying his tax, so that the rest of the storeowners would see and beware.

That time was known as “Gravski's era”. Most Kremenets Jews, who made their living from commerce, were ruined. Even our banks could not help, in spite of the assistance they received from their centers in Warsaw. The resources of the Polish bank in Kremenets were much greater, but they did not deal much among the Jewish population.

This was the situation when an open war against the Jewish businesses, was started by the Polish authorities, who supported the opening of Polish cooperative stores in the villages and cities as a way to confiscate all businesses from the Jews. This move to cleanse their business world of Jews started in 1933 and greatly increased from 1936 until the Second World War. The craftsmen were affected too, as they were part of that population.

Because of the economic depression there were many people among the town's Jews who could not earn a living. The level of nutritious food went down and with it there was a decline in the health of the population. Despair increased, pressure on the social institutions of the congregation increased, but they could not give sufficient help to all the needy. Many were helped by relatives in America, and even public institutions were in need of this support.


[Page 95]


The extent of impoverishment in those years could be learned from the typical fact that when the monthly help from the “landsmanshaft” in America arrived (generally a minute sum: $100 - $120 a month), they announced it in the local newspaper, and also the amounts given to each institution: a sum of $5 to this one, $10 to the other one, etc.

This was the economic situation of most of the Jewish population in Kremenets at the start of the Second World War.


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