[Page 8]

Koło Jewry was first mentioned in 1429, in the records of the district courts in Konin. Nonetheless, one can assume that, much as in many towns in Greater Poland, Jews also lived in Koło in the fourteenth century. Thanks to its geographical location (it lies at crossroads where the Varta River bends west from the north) in the first half of the fourteenth century Koło was a major commercial center. It was probably this commercial importance that prompted King Casimir the Great, in 1362, to grant the colony of Koło city rights with benefits ensuing from the Magdaburg trial. In 1564, the people of Koło received a letter from the king (“privilege”), for the first time. The letter determined the city's rights and duties: the Jews there were allowed to live in the city and to engage in trading. They were also, however, bound to pay taxes, and to comply with the other duties laid down by the king, as other Koło residents.

In 1571 a contract was drafted with regard to the status of the Jews in the city, in which it was stipulated that: “The city's Christians have undertaken to provide assistance to the Jews against all attack, in return for which the Jews will pay an annual tax to the municipal kitty.” In 1593, an agreement was drawn up between the municipality and the Jews of Koło whereby it was stated that Jews found guilty in a court trial were to be incarcerated in the municipal jail, but they would be exempted from imprisonment if the leaders of the community vouched for them.

Wholesale trading activities of Koło Jews in the sixteenth century comprised two types of goods which, at the time, accounted for a major portion of the exports of Jews in Greater Poland to Germany: animal skins and milk. In 1580-81 Polish Jews shipped 545 ox skins, 50 sheepskins and 45 “stones” of milk (one “stone” was the equivalent weight of 32 liters) via the Kalisz customs station. Compared with the overall volume of trading that passed through the customs station that year this did not represent a large amount. Kalisz Jews declared only 4,479 skins (including 134 ox skins, 2,370 goatskins, 635 sheep skins) at the customs station. They also shipped furs, wool, milk (30 stones), wax and a quantity of “stones”, cotton wool and feathers. In addition to these, the customs station at Bauschtzishov recorded goods shipped by Kalisz Jews that included a large amount of animal skins (11,705, most of which were goatskins), fabrics, scythes and soap. At the time, the Jews of Kalisz contributed a large part of the country's trade, second only to the Jews of Poznan - the leading Jewish community in Greater Poland, while the Jewish community of Koło was only considered a medium sized community. In 1611, there were 24 Jewish households in Koło.

In the seventeenth century, Koło Jews continued their foreign trade activities. The list of 332 Jews who attended the 11-day Breslau Fair in 1685, from March 26 to April 5, include two Jews from Koło: Herschel Yossef and Yaakov Marcus (the visitors included 32 Jews from Kalisz, 22 from Lisa, 20 from Krotoschin and a handful from Poznan, thus one cannot conclude there was a sharp decline in trading by Koło Jews compared with the previous century).

Our knowledge of artisanship among Koło Jewry at that time is limited to information we have regarding the efforts of Christian artists to interfere with the work of Jewish artists. In 1593 the guild of Koło tailors obtained a “privilege” which stipulated that only Catholics were eligible for membership of the guild. The Christian artisans, particularly tailors and butchers, also managed to oblige the Jews to pay a “milk tax” (in return for the milk of slaughtered cattle) which went to the castle of the “voit” (the municipal judge).

The city of Koło and the surrounding area were “starostwo nieogrodowe dzierzawne”, in other words, an estate of the king given to an aristocrat in return for a minimal lease payment. During a visit by the starostwo auditor, on behalf of the Sejm[Polish parliament], the Jews of Koło complained that the city's residents illegally obliged them to provide a carriage and horses for the king's use.

The Koło Jewish community was still a medium-sized community in the eighteenth century. In 1729 the community was asked to pay 150 gold coins as an annual poll tax. In 1738 this sum was increased to 300 gold coins.

As part of the autonomy of the Committee of the Four Countries the Koło community belonged to Greater Poland, which was called Great Poland, which was governed as an autonomous region with its own committee. The committee was dominated by the three large communities: Kalisz, Lisa and Krotoschin (the Poznan community was considered a region of its own). However, sometimes other communities, such as Zlotsch and even a small community like Yarotschin, one of whose leading members was appointed to a position on the state committee, also achieved this status. The Koło community never enjoyed this status. The community was never cited in the list of benefactors and state heads, or in the list of cities and towns where the committee convened.

The 1764 census of Jews conducted throughout the kingdom of Poland for poll tax calculation purposes includes 256 Jews from Koło. Based on its size, the Koło community was ninth among communities in the Kalisz voivode, the largest of which was Krotoschin with 1656 Jews, according to the official census, followed by Kalisz which had 809 Jews. It is clear that the actual number of Jews in Koło, as in other Polish towns, was larger than the number that appeared in the census. First, one should add all the babies under the age of one year, who were not included in the census as they were exempted from poll tax. In places where nursing babies were included in the census, in a separate list, the number rose to 5.6% of the total number. Based on this, the number of Jews in Koło, even according to the official census, rose to 270. However, one must take into account the phenomenon of census avoidance, due to the imposition of poll tax. Bar from Bolochov relates in his memoirs that the Jews did their best to keep themselves out of the census, particularly the children who could be hidden easily, and the poorer members of the community for whom, had they not concealed them, they would have had to cover their taxes to the Crown. One can assume that the number of “hidden community members” would have increased the number of Jews in the community by 20%.

Thus, the actual number of Koło Jews in 1764 was at least 310-325. The official figure of 256 reflects much of the demographic, economic and social conditions of the time. The 256 Jews over the age of 1 year comprised 130 men and 126 women. These included 128 married (64 couples), 1 widower, 52 boys, 52 girls and another 23 male servants, female servants and artisans' assistants.

The professional breakdown of heads of houses was as follows:

13 merchants
16 tailors
1 milliner
6 furriers
4 weavers
9 butchers
1 glazier
1 barber
1 rabbi
1 synagogue usher
12 unspecified professions

Total 65

There were 23 salaried earners, including 7 servants – all in merchants' houses, as commercial assistants – 6 artisans' assistants, all of whom were tailors; 14 female servants.

The most striking aspect of this professional breakdown of community members is the high percentage of artisans. Of the 53 household heads whose professions were specified in the census, 38 (72%) were artisans. The professions of 12 household heads, however, were not specified and it is likely that these included not only artisans but also peddlers and brokers, and undoubtedly also included “people with free professions” not mentioned in the list of professionals, such as the cantor, the “shokhet” (ritual slaughterer), and the “melamdim” (Torah scholars) of the community (and probably a klezmer musician or two). Even if we assume that there were no artisans among the 12 professionals whose professions were not specified, even so a number of the 38 artisans whose professions were specified would be added to the 58.5% of the heads of households who responded to the census.

This high percentage of artisans was a common phenomenon in cities and towns in Greater Poland and is a result of the rapid socio-economic development in this region. In Greater Poland, which was more developed than provincial Poland, Jews did not work in the drinks trade. Estate owners either ran this highly profitable part of their businesses themselves, or entrusted it to their employees. The 1764 census of the Kalisz voivode cited just 3 Jewish families living in villages! The Jews of Greater Poland were barred from earning a living from leasing property, or as publicans. These professions provided all Jews living in rural areas of Greater Poland – who accounted for a third of all Polish Jews - at that time with a means of livelihood. If we add these to those engaged in the sale of beverages in cities and towns this indicates that more then two-fifths of all Jews in Poland worked in this sector. After being barred from working in property leasing and as publicans the Jews of Greater Poland opted, against their will, for artisanship. It was the Jews who couldn't make a living as merchants who became artisans. As a result, the Jews of Greater Poland, despite their significant contribution as merchants, were far more productive than the Jewish towns in all the other provinces of the kingdom.

The high productivity of Greater Poland Jewry is even more remarkable if we add other Jewish workers to the artisans, who comprised a separate entity. If we add to the 38 artisans in Koło the 23 assistants who worked for artisans or merchants, and as female servants, we arrive at a total of 61 Jews earning their living from manual labor. This represents around 70% of the 88 breadwinners in the community. As shown by records from 1793, during this period, the owners of large businesses were most prominent among the dozen or so Jewish merchants in Koło. These include visitors, similar to Jewish merchants from the community of nearby Konin and those who attended fairs in Frankfurt in Prussia.

During the time when the community census was being conducted, between 1763-65, a new synagogue was being built in Koło (the second synagogue was built in 1860). The high level of culture in the community is indicated by the following fact: in 1775 the Sejm imposed a special stamp duty on books written in Hebrew (Hebrew and Yiddish) of one grush per book. To this end, the Jews had to bring all their books to be stamped by the officials sent to each community. The list of books submitted for stamping in Koło in 1776 included 243 books belonging to 29 community members. This means that over half of the family heads recorded in the official community census owned books – an average of six books per person. However, despite the heavy penalties imposed on owners of unstamped books, many books were concealed from the authorities (the evil eye). There were more unstamped books than stamped books.

After the second partition of Poland, in 1793, Koło was included in Prussian territory along with the rest of Greater Poland. However, this kingdom could not control the territories it conquered. In 1794, there was a Polish national rebellion led by Kosciuszko. Koło changed hands between the rebels and Prussia and this affected the Jewish community of Koło which had to pay heavy rates and provide provisions to each of the warring parties. The community was forced to offer provisions to the Polish army (troops serving under Generals Dombrowski, Nozjwoski, Madalinski and various divisions commanded by officers) and to the Prussian forces which alternately conquered the town. These provisions included horses and carts, fodder, bread and wine, whisky, arms and uniforms and the costs of messengers and spies. During a period of just two months, from August 26 to October 27, 1794, the community's rates and forced labor costs totaled in excess of 587 tallars. After the uprising was quashed in 1795, Poland was partitioned for a third time and Koło returned to Prussian rule. This imposed further
duties on the Jews with the issue of the “Reglement” decrees of 1779. Following Napoleon's victory over Prussia in 1806 the Polish kingdom was reinstated under the title of the Duchy of Warsaw. Koło was assigned to the “department” of Kalisz, as had been the case in the old Poland when it fell within the boundaries of the Kalisz voivode. The ducal census of 1808 recorded 2313 Koło residents, of whom 802 were Jews, accounting for around one third of the total number of residents.

After Napoleon's defeat in 1813 the Duchy of Warsaw came to an end and most of its territory was annexed by Russia as part of the Congress Kingdom (Congressional Poland), named after the Congress in Vienna where, in 1815, its fate was decided.

During the nineteenth century the town of Koło grew into a small city, and the number of Jewish residents grew disproportionately.

Year	1808	1827	1857	1862	1897
Total no. of residents	2515	3182	4610	4832	9359
No. of Jews	802	1184	2318	2478	9359
Percentage of total	31.7	37.2	50.3	51.3	42.9

At the end of the 1870s there were three ceramic factories that employed 165 workers. In addition, there were smaller factories that produced ribbons and confectionery; there were breweries, a watermill and about a dozen windmills. In total, the 300 or so industrial facilities employed some 850 workers. The large number of mills was a result of the high fertility of the soil in the area which produced large yields of wheat. On the other hand, Koło's geographical location was not an advantage, as it had been during the Middle Ages when it was just this factor that had encouraged the development of local trade. As trains routes were developed Koło found itself cut off from the new transportation routes. The nearest train station, the Kotno station on the Warsaw-Bydgoszcz line, was 40 wurst (about 44 kilometers) away. Lack of investment in rerouting the Varta River prevented the development of transportation along water routes. As a result, Koło's growth stopped and it remained a small regional town which prided itself in its district court and the windmills that characterized the local landscapes. We have detailed information about the professions of the Jews of Koło at the end of the nineteenth century, based on the population census conducted in the Russian empire in 1897.

Profession	Men*	Women*	Total*	Men**	Women**	Total**	Total
Administration, courts, police	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Public Servants	2	-	2	1	4	5	7
Independent court profession	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Military	7	-	7	-	-	-	7
Synagogue Service	1	-	1	-	-	-	1
Non-Christian religious service	-	-	-	4	11	15	15
Cemetery work	8	-	8	15	22	37	45
Education, study, science & arts	13	3	16	10	25	35	51
Medicine and sanitary work	7	2	9	3	12	15	24
Charity institution work	91	112	203	2	40	42	245
Servants and day laborers	76	35	111	3	168	171	282
Income from capital and assets	12	1	13	-	1	-	14
Income from payments received from the state treasury and public institutions	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Supplies from individuals	1	-	1	-	-	-	1
Fishing and hunting	1	-	1	-	-	-	1
Fiber material production	17	2	29	13	14	27	46
Animal hide processing	9	-	9	15	21	36	45
Wood processing	2	-	2	1	3	4	6
Metalwork	15	1	16	13	19	32	48
Mineral processing	4	-	4	3	10	13	17
Chemicals	2	-	2	2	3	5	7
Alcohol production, beer and meed production	2	-	2	1	7	8	10
Vegetable and animal processing for production	49	2	51	28	30	58	109
Printing	6	2	8	8	8	16	24
Surgical instruments, clocks, optics	4	-	4	-	8	8	12
Jewelers, painters	1	-	1	-	1	1	2
Clothing	185	22	127	145	202	347	154
Construction, apartment repair and maintenance etc.	11	-	1	-	26	37	48
Vehicles (Cart owners)	48	-	49	67	114	181	250
Land transportation and haulage	3	-	3	5	-	5	8
Credit institutions and public commercial institutions	1	-	1	-	4	5	6
Trade brokers	29	-	29	50	84	134	163
General trade	17	5	22	35	43	78	100
Animal trade	15	-	15	15	36	51	66
Agricultural produce	64	1	65	104	172	276	341
Other agricultural produce	140	21	161	205	416	621	782
Construction and heating materials	10	1	11	14	29	43	54
Household goods	16	1	17	18	52	70	87
Metal goods, machines	6	1	7	2	10	12	19
Fabrics and clothing	45	2	47	70	107	177	324
Hides, furs, etc	15	-	15	18	39	57	72
Luxury goods, science and the arts	1	-	1	1	4	5	6
General merchandise	5	1	6	6	8	14	20
Peddling, etc	2	1	3	4	4	8	11
Hostels, inns and furnished rooms	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Drinks trading	17	2	19	29	51	80	99
Cleaning and hygiene	2	3	5	3	10	13	18
General workers	12	8	20	2	9	11	31
Prostitution	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Undeclared professions	1	10	11	1	-	1	12
TOTAL	975	240	1215	928	1827	2755	3970

* Self-Employed **Relatives [Editor's note: There are errors in the addition totals (e.g. Clothing) but the numbers used are faithful to the original chart]

The following is a summary of the professional statistics, according to main areas of commerce (earners and relatives together).

Areas of commerce	Absolute no.	% of Jewish population
Clerks with free professions employed in public service	406	10.2
Servants and day workers	282	7.1
Industry and crafts	928	23.4
Transportation and haulage	238	6.0
Trade	2064	52.4
Unspecified profession, others	52	1.3
Total	3970	100.0

The uneven make-up of the professional breakdown is even more striking in the special areas of industry and the crafts in which local Jews worked: the majority of those recorded as working in industry and the crafts were accounted for by those employed in the clothing and food industries. 554 Jews, or 60% of those working in industry and the crafts, earned their living in the clothing sector, while 109 – or close to 12% - worked in industry and the crafts. If we describe the statistics in human terms we find that over half of those making a living from the crafts and industry were tailors, furriers, milliners etc., and together with butchers and bakers they account for close to three-quarters of the “industry” and crafts sector in the community. Other areas of industry and crafts provided only weavers and sewers (fiber material production) – 19 breadwinners; 15 metalworkers and another 11 “construction workers”, most of whom were mold makers. Traders in produce and “other agricultural products” accounted for the largest group among the various areas of trade – 226 breadwinners including, with family members, 1123 people, or 53% of all those earning a living from trade. This reflects the town's special position as a regional center, known for its agricultural produce because of the high fertility of the soil. The second largest group included traders in fabrics and clothing – there were 47 of them, and the total 224 people who lived off this area of trade account for just less than 11% of all those earning a living from trading. It is also noteworthy that just 19 people (99 in total) worked in the drinks trade, and just 29 trade brokers (mediators etc.) (a total of 163 with family members), who comprised a small group in view of the large number of traders in the town.

After World War One, in 1921, around three years after Poland was re-established, the census in Koło indicated a population of 11,450, including 5159 Jews (45%). There were 13,800 residents in the 1931 census.

In 1938 the official figures indicated the existence of 1400 craftsmen's workshops, of which 550 were owned by Jews, comprising 37.7 percent – almost two-fifths. 329 of these hired employees, 221 or 40% worked themselves or were only helped by family members. This was about a year and a half before the Holocaust which was to decimate the ancient community.

Bibliography

Berson M. Dyplomataryusz dotyczacy zydow s. dawnej Polsce Nr. 118
Ringelblum E. Kolo, Encyclopedia Judaica
Slownik Geograficzny Krolestwa Polskiego, art. Kolo
Waslutynski B. Ludnose zydowska w Polsce, Warszawa, 1930 str. 25.
Berszadsju S,A, Ruski-Jewrejski Archiw III
Szipper I. Dzieje jandlu zydowskiego na ziemiach polskich, Warszawa, 1937, str. 97, 294

[Page 17]

My recollections of Koło reach only to the 1930s, until my immigration to Israel.

Before I talk about Jewish life during two decades, I would like to pause at a few details, numbers, that are related to the city.

Koło, (which the Jews called “Koyl”), was a regional capitol connected to the following small towns: Izhbitze, Babyak, Brudzev, Dombieh, Sampolna and Klododve.

The region of Koło belonged to the provincial region of Lodz and later Poznan. Its borders were: from north and east – with Nieshev, Vlatzlov and Kutno counties (Warsaw provincial region); from south-west, with Lenshitz county; from the south -Turek; from the west – Konin county (Lodz provincial region).

The county, as well as the town Koło cut through the Warta River, a distance of approximately forty kilometres.

In the area of the county, 1,270 square kilometres, the population numbered close to 118,000 people, 25,000 in Koło and the surrounding towns, 93,000, in the villages. According to nationality they can be divided: 98,000 Poles, 12,000 Jews and 8,000 Folk Germans (Germans living outside of Germany).

The majority of the non-Jewish population worked the land, and a small number were artisans. The Jews worked in trade and handicrafts.

The head of the county was a Starosta, village elder, who was chosen by the government. Heading the collective departments was a county administration, comprised of chosen representatives from the population. The administration created an executive organ of 6 people. For a time, the writer of these lines was the Jewish member delegated to the admirative body. Before him, Vladisalv Kohn.

In the final years, there was not one Jewish delegate on the administration.

[Page 18]

From the cities and towns in the region only three: Koło, Klodova and Dombie had municipal autonomy in the early years after the first World War. Koło – 24 councilmen and 3 aldermen; Klodova – 12 councilmen and 2 aldermen; Dombie – 12 councilmen and 2 aldermen. Koło always had a Jewish alderman. The first was Dr. Bresler. After him: Shloyme Noyman, Yosef Fogel and Leyb Luksnburgerg.

The county administration supported the following institutions and clerks: an agricultural school in Kashsheletz; a regional hospital with two doctors; two county doctors; one veterinarian, a roads department with one engineer and one technician, three road builders, 37 road inspectors; a savings and loan till, a network of elementary public schools; they generously supported the agrarian cooperatives, a tool to oust Jews from the business.

The Jewish population did not benefit from the above-mentioned institutions. The county administration did not admit Jewish clerks, doctors, engineers, technicians etc.

The buildings in town which were considered antiquity were: the Catholic church, which was built in 1456; the Protestant church, built in 1405 and the Town Hall, built in 1390. That building was enlarged and renovated in 1782 and 1815.

The First World War which broke out in 1914 befell the Jewish population like a punishment from heaven, suddenly bring everything to a standstill. Within two days the offices were closed and evacuated. On the third day of the war the police chief and mayor were no longer in town. Not even a policeman could be found at any cost. Jews stood in small groups on the street frightened and asking: What will be? In the following days patrols passed through the streets: sometimes Russians, sometimes Germans.

The situation was critical: one could not leave and no one could enter. The schools were closed; there were neither markets nor fairs. What would they live off? All foods were hidden or sold out. There was a serious lack of food.

In fear of theft and other crimes a municipal militia was set up,

[Page 19]

whose task it was to guard by day and by night.

Two weeks after the war broke out the entire Warta region was occupied by the German army. However, once, during a Russian counter-attack, the Germans withdrew for seven days, but later hung on until the end of the World War.

The marching though of large military units gave people a temporary opportunity to earn some money. Many people opened tea markets, kiosks with food and sweets. The soldiers came and the town was once again alive. Dozens of families earned good money selling livestock and grain in the villages providing goods for the German power. A few people bought copper and brass for the German war industry.

In spite of the restricted relations, many Jews in Koło had the opportunity to do business with Germany and run large businesses. The attitude of the occupiers toward the Jews was liberal. I still remember the flattering appeal made by Kaiser Wilhelm in Yiddish. It began: “To my beloved Jews in Poland!”

The youth did not leave Koło. Those who left for the large cities returned bringing new winds that were blowing. They began to organize their lives based on new foundations.

The Germans nominated a local authority and tried to attract Jews as well. Those who until now were treated like second class citizens, and felt removed from every influence in societal life, now felt as equals among equals for the first time.

A German officer from the German civil administration named Gephardt was nominated as mayor. He organized a town council of 18 people: 6 Jews, 6 Poles and 6 Germans. On the official apparatus were Itche Noyman – secretary, and Moishe Valter – treasurer. The head of the city militia was the musician Zlamkhiye Lishok. The Jewish policemen were: Levkovitch and Sokhochevsky. Mobilizing the Jews was spitting in the Poles' faces.

The new mayor built an electrical plant and hired the Jewish engineer Cohen. The collector was another Jew Shteynhart, a refugee from Warsaw.

[Page 20]

During the war the first light rail was built connecting the city with Dombia, Izhbitze and Vltslavek. From Pshitrania there was a connection to Sampolna and Shleshin. Now to travel to Warsaw, they no longer had to travel by horse and carriage to Kutne. They could now take the light rail to Vlotzlavek and from there take the train which connected Kutne to Stchalkov. This last station was ready before the war.

During the war years the county hospital was completed. In a suburb of Warsaw (near the park) a hospital for infectious diseases was built (20 beds). The public schools reopened in the school year 1915-1916. A science school was also founded in Koło. It began with 6 grades and later, eight.

The Zionist organization in Kola was connected to the Zionist organization in Germany. A Jewish newspaper was founded as well as brochures and panorama cards with pictures from the bible.

The first kindergarten was run by Miss Salye Varmbrun and the first Hebrew school was run by Vaytchik from Warsaw.

The workers and artisans founded the “Worker's House”, where the majority of the youth gathered and from where the following youth groups emerged: The Poalei Zion (The Labour Zionist Organization), right and left, and “The Jewish Labour Bund”. The “Worker's House” was situated in Binkovsky's house on Fisher Street, later in Stal's house on Blankova Street and finally, in the new marketplace in Aylovsky's house.

There was a Sick Fund organized at the “Worker's House”. Each member donated a small amount and the poor were able to receive medical help. They also offered courses for youth, a drama club and a cooperative for used clothes called “Unity”.

The founders of the above-mentioned institutions were: Yehuda Barkovsky, Avrom Bercovitch, Zokn Fride, Meshulem Cherniak, Leybish Markovitch (all killed in the war), Ezriel Pshedetsky (died before the war), Yisroel Shvartzman (died in Israel), the author of these lines and others.

From among the youth: Koyfman Frankovsky (today in America), the brothers

[Page 21]

The Labour Zionist party in Koło, 1917 Engl, Sokhochevsky, Frayde Rauf (all killed in the war), Hersh Aylovsky, Yitzkhak Dobzhinsky, Esther Dobzhinsky, Frayde Shtern, Miriam Engl (all in Israel)

Founders of the cooperative “Unity”: Seated: (From right to left) Sokhochevsky, Goldberg, Harap, Engl, Cherniak, Dobzhinsky, G. Zolkind, Lupu, Shibaynsky, Skurke, Kh. M. Sokhochevsky, German, Barkovsky, A. Bercovitch, L. Markovitch, Izrailevitch (America), Strikoksky.

[Page 22]

In the Vise of Polish Anti-Semitism

November 1918 the Germans capitulated. On November 11th Pilsudski was freed from the Magdeburg prison. An independent Polish republic was declared.

The Polish School and Workers Youth disarmed the German occupiers. Jewish students from the Science School took part in this campaign.

The Polish Spring was stained with innocent spilled blood. The attacks by hooligans on Jews evoked fear throughout the world. The repressed Jewish masses in Poland asked astonished: “Is this the free State of Poland”?

As a result, secret deliberations began among Jews in the military how received mobilization cards. Jewish youth decide to leave the country.

Understandably, the goal was the Land of Israel. I remember a banquet in honour of a few friends who were preparing to leave. The following obligations were signed: “We are obliged to meet in the Land of Israel, in the colony which will be founded by our brothers from Koło”. I brought that document with me but unfortunately lost it this past year.

A small group left for America, some to Germany. The majority, after dragging themselves through Germany, France and Italy returned to Poland and were mobilized.

Youth from Koło in the Polish military

[Page 23]

My life experiences in Koło were interrupted. In 1919 I was drafted into the Polish army and in 1921 completed my service. I then left to study and returned in 1924.

When I returned to my hometown after military service, I found a different situation: livelihoods were weakened and the devaluation saw the end of prosperity. The youth were sparse, some were in the army and the rest scattered all over the world. The remaining were divided (after the split in the Labour Zionist Movement). Some workers became involved in the Bund and there were already a few Jewish communists.

The city administration, headed by Klimoshevsky numbered 24 councilmen, among them, 10 Jews. The representatives of the workers and artisans were: Yehuda Barkovsky, the Gehrman brothers, Avrom Bercovitch, Frideh Zokn (Labour Zionist), Mordovitch (the Bund), Rosalia Koyfman and Vladek Cohen, from among the citizens. I do not recall the names of the last two. The alderman was Dr. Sholem Bresler.

The following cultural institutions existed:

1. A Jewish high school (6 classes). On the board: N. Band, Moishe Rabinovitch, Moishe Leyb Levin, Dovid Fiernikazh and others.
2. Two private girl's schools, belonging to the Tcharnozshl and Gutman families.
3. A Jewish kindergarten, organized by the Zionist clubs.
4. A “Bund” kindergarten.
5. Evening courses run by all Jewish worker's parties.
6. The religious school “The Tree of Life”.

The year was 1924. During the six years of Polish independence many Jewish economic positions fell to ruin. The chief of the tax department, Andler (a son-in-law of the German teacher Berthold) sucked the marrow out of Jewish bones.

In order to stand up against this sadistic tax collector, the Jewish merchants and artisans began to organize. The first chairman of the merchant union was Aron Ritchek. He was assisted by Solomon Vinter, Noteh Brand, Shaye Resler and others. The members were divided into sections, according to branches.

[Page 24]

Market travellers created their own section. The society also had its own arbitration court. The artisans organized their own union chaired by Reb Aron Rotbard.

The administration of the artisan union: (Seated from right to left): Kh. Kempinsky, Pshedetsky, Tchurzh, M.Y. Nitshnisky, Kahn, Aron Rotbard, Shmuel Trayber Standing: Hantvurtzl, Moskal, Mendelson, Bzhustovsky and Brener

The general banks and credit unions were closed to Jewish merchants. Right after the war the Jewish population began to organize their own credit institutions.

[Page 25]

A central union of Jewish credit cooperatives emerged in Poland. The primary capital came from two sources: the American Joint Distribution Committee and membership fees.

There was a Jewish credit cooperative founded in Koło as well. The director was Hershl Shner. In the early years they did not have capital and did not have a social character. It served the interests of a few merchants (cargo which arrived COD).

In 1924, after the founding of the Merchant and Artisan Union, the credit cooperative was taken out of Hershl Shner's hands. A supervisory committee was elected chaired by Moishe-Leyb Levin and with Board of Directors with Avrom Rotbard as director.

Members of the board were: Nosn Brand, Nosn Glitzenshteyn, and Friedlender.

The artisans also founded their own banking cooperative. The same year the regional Sick Fund opened in town which had great significance for the Jewish workers, artisans working from home and hand workers. Given that, like in the Kalisz Sick Fund, with which Koło was connected, the Polish Socialist Party, together with the Jewish Workers Parties held a majority, and the relations toward the Jews was positive. A Jewish clerk was hired (Miss Gehrman), a Jewish medic (Moskal) and 2 Jewish doctors: Bialostatsky and Lebnfish.

One by one the were pushed out and only Dr. Bialostatsky remained.

In 1924 municipal elections took place. The Jewish parties elected the following council members:

Labour Zionist (Left): Yehuda Barkovsky, Avrom Berkovitch, Zokn Freda;

Labour Zionist (Right): Leybush Kaninsky and Leyb Brukshteyn; “Bund” – Henekh Hirshbeyn. Civic list- Rozalia Koyfman: Agudat Yisrael – Moishe Sheynfeld.

The communists: Vaytchekhovsky, the pharmacist and Leshniyevsky – a shoemaker. Both supported all the Jewish issues and demands.

[Page 26]

The Christian Democrats – 8 councilmen and the National Democrats – 6 councilmen.

The Christian Democrats in Koło had a liberal attitude toward Jewish issues. The teacher Vladislav Kshitzky stood at the peak of this faction. He was later elected mayor. The manufacturer Cheslav Froydenreich led the National Democrats.

The results of the city council elections in January 1929 were a victory for the Jews. They brought in 10 councilmen.

List number 1 – the Fascist Party – 3 councilmen; Poalei Zion (Labour Zionist Left) – 4 councilmen: Yehuda Barkovsky, Shloyme Noyman, Frideh Zokn, Yisroel Iman; Poalei Zion (Labour Zionist Right) – 2 councilmen: Avrom Leybush Kaninsky and Leyb Brukshteyn; “Bund” – 1 councilman: Henekh Hirshbeyn;

P.P.S (Polish Socialist Party) – 1 councilman; National Democrats – 5; Christian Democrats – 5; General Zionists – 2: Yehoshua Dovid Engelman and Shmuel Rotbard; Agudat Yisrael – 1 M. Sheynfeld.

Yosef Fogel was elected alderman.

The Jewish election victory did not have significant influence for the benefit of Jewish interests.

Members of the Poalei Zion with the writer Yoel Mastboym Seated: (From right to left): Shloyme Noyman, Mastboym, Barkovsky, Zokn Frideh Standing: Sokohchevsky, Frankovsky, PShedetsky, Cherniak

[Page 27]

Jews Build a Railroad

Jews played a visible role in the building of the Herby -Nove Gdinye railroad which crossed through the district of Koło.

A large stretch was undertaken by the Warsaw Jewish construction firm “Budeks”. They built the warehouses and office in Barlagay, 11 kilometres from Koło.

Heading the company was the engineer Marek Temkin, a well-known Zionist activist in Poland, and the engineer Gelblum, the director of the construction. They did everything to attract Jews to this work: engineers, technical students and clerks. Jewish merchants from Koło suppled building material. The attempt to hire Jewish labourers remained unsuccessful.

Among those employed with the railroad construction were Fishl Korn, the future activist in Betar and the writer of these lines.

Let my recollections serve as a remembrance for those who did not live to be with us.

Original Footnote

1. Former alderman on the Koło city council. Return

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