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Education and Teachers

A large number of residents in our town belonged to the ultra-orthodox party. As a result, there were few children among us, who attended the High School, who had not attended the Hebrew “cheder”. The number of orthodox children who attended the high school was almost zero, and most were educated, at least when they were little – according to the law of the Torah, in which they were instructed by their teachers and scholars in the course of eight consecutive years.

However, after they completed their studies in the Hebrew cheder and smelled the scent of general enlightenment and advanced their scope of the study of the sciences, they found new teachers and leaders, teachers of a different kind entirely, who met them at every step of the way. On the recommendation of these teachers, they would carry out deeds and follow a path, even though this path would not be pleasing to their parents.

Indeed, these young boys, who, in their eight ears of wandering through various religious elementary schools, had enough time to acquire an abundant measure of our language and the chronicles of our people, and would not easily leave their spiritual assets; and we could still hope that even if they reach a high level of education, they will certainly return to us from every place. Since they were entirely devoted to general learning, they will also set time for Hebrew learning, and their hearts and their spirit will eternally be faithful.

Unfortunately for us, there are very few of these boys among us who will reach this level, and most of them leave the “cheder” and are devoid of any knowledge and are not able to translate a verse in any form. All this is the fault of the many scholars who teach in our town, who do their work deceptively.

Indeed, the truth cannot be hidden, regarding the teaching. Some good will prevail among these tutors who are ignorant of the reasons that caused this – because these tutors are divided into four units or “designated areas”, according to their strength. A student will spend time in these four “areas”, one at a time, over eight consecutive years, as he chooses; two years at a time, and will begin with the Alef-Bet until the end of the Tanach [the Bible]. Every tutor knows and safeguards his own “style”, and because of this, the level of the boys who study in one “cheder” is not so different from those in another cheders. This is a futile system, because there are many teachers in each sector who are not accomplished and are not of equal ability - therefore the first is not like the second and the second is not like the third; what is common to each and every one of them, is the attempt to harm one another. Each and every one spreads gossip and speaks badly about the next person and basely humiliates him. Every one of them defames another maliciously before the parents of the students because there is always conflict between these tutors. And when they go out to canvass for students, they lose every good attribute, and they will allow their actions to be alien to their beliefs; and this sight will provoke laughter and heartache, and together with this, the tutors will go door to door, begging for students. They will then use every offensive means in their speaking, entailing only derision, lies, and deception. And this worthless system of teaching in our town, becomes a vessel without shame or disgrace, that generously grants the most inferior tutors, an annual salary of 5 or 6 hundred Rubel a year, and some even as much as 800 Rubel, and more.

In truth, there is no rule without exceptions, and here too, there are some decent, educated teachers who are courteous and polite, three of whom are the most excellent and worthy of teaching the young people in our town, whose names should be printed in the columns of the newspaper “Ha'melitz”^[1]. According to their positions and their sectors, they are: the first – REB BEINUSH TARSHISH who runs a “cheder” for the first grade, or as they used to call them “a teacher of young children”. The second is REB SHIMON HIRSHENHORN, and last but not least, REB REUVEN YOEL MARGOLIN. These three teachers were truly of help, as they were knowledgeable and wise, and demonstrated a remarkable talent for teaching; each one of them fulfilled his objective in the best and most beneficial way, and all their students saw great blessing in their efforts. From this experience we learned that a boy who attended these three “cheders” as required, will, in the course of six years, acquire our language in all its detail and minutiae, and when he graduates, he will be eloquent and literate, a writer, erudite, and an excellent scholar, versed in the wisdom of Judaica

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and our nation that is arranged and preserved in his heart from beginning to end.

Yet teachers like these were small in number, compared to the rest of the tutors in our town, whose numbers reached a hundred or more. Not everyone was privileged to be influenced by those accomplished teachers and only a small section of the children in our town was able to benefit from them; and even more so, the tutors will target them and reprimand them severely. There are among these warring tutors, whose tongue and curses strike the residents in our town and dazzle them with deception and turn the “sweet” to bitter, and the “bitter” to sweet, for their tongues are toxic.

Like the rivalry that we have become accustomed to seeing every day in the world of trade, and particularly in the market-place of bargaining women, the same rivalry we see here in the market-place of the tutors; however , the competitive trade will bring the purchasers blessing and not cursing, and the competitor will suffer damage when reducing the price of his merchandize, but the rivalry among the tutors is not like this: the tutors will not reduce the tuition fees and will not suffer any damage or grief, and all their rivalry serves only to dig a deeper pit for a colleague and increase the wrath of the students towards another tutor.

At the beginning of this summer, this rivalry spurred a few teachers to rent large premises that would accommodate a few teachers in specific rooms, where a teacher of young children would be installed for the meantime, and it would be called “class”, because the teacher will release the students on the 4^th hour of the day, and after teaching the students for one year, he will pass them to the second tutor, and the latter to the third tutor.

Footnote

1. Ha'Melitz [The Advocate] – the oldest Hebrew newspaper, published in Odessa in 1860. return

In the days of my childhood, at the end of the 19^th century, and at the beginning of the 20^th century, the traditional “cheder” was the school for the children of the town. The children of the poorer families were sent to the “Talmud Torah”, and the children of the communal leaders and the more affluent families, went to private “cheders”. The “cheders” were divided into different levels according to the age of the children, most of whom spent about two years in each “cheder”.

My first teacher was “Rafael the nose”, probably because of his large protruding nose. I studied with him in the years 1895 – 1896. He was an old man, whose external appearance and his clothes were very neglected. His “cheder” was in his private home, and his “assistant” would bring us to him in the morning and would take us back only in the evening. Every child took food with him – bread and butter, or something similar (it was called “mit zich” in the town - meaning “with him” in Yiddish). In this “cheder” we learnt the chumash (the 5 books of the Torah) with a translation in Yiddish. I do not remember learning to read, but apparently, I passed this stage in my parents' home. On the other hand, I remember that we commenced our learning with the book of “Va'y‎ikra” [Leviticus}, and only after that, we went on to the other books of the Torah. I do not think that the Rabbi hit us. He was simply old and dejected and did not have the energy or the strength to hit us.

In 1897 - 1898, I moved over to the “Kvitchtzer Rabbi”. We studied with him in a special room, separate from his home. The Rabbi administered many punishments, slaps and beatings were a daily occurrence in his “cheder”. He would mete out specific punishments. So, for example, a boy who did not know his lessons, was made to walk around an entire day with his buttocks exposed, and a sign hung around his neck “this is what will be done to someone”. The Rabbi also earned a living as a poultry slaughterer, in addition to his income as a teacher. His role as a slaughterer took place during the time that he taught, and each time he was brought a chicken for slaughter, he would leave the room, with all of us behind him – seeing the twitching, fluttering chicken. In this “cheder” we studied Hebrew and the Chumash [Five books of the Torah].

The teacher who came after him was Avremele Kussoy^[1]. He had a more advanced form of discipline. We did not sit around a table, but rather on school benches. In addition to the Chumash, we began to study the Talmudic tractate “egg”. A small whip assisted him in maintaining discipline. I studied with him in 1899 – 1900. We would come to “cheder” and return home on our own. I remember the great fear that accompanied me when I walked home on winter nights with

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my humble lantern, with a candle in its midst. I feared mostly, the drunken soldiers, particularly the new conscripts, who hung around the streets, as well as the thieves whom I might encounter when I entered the courtyard of our house. There were many thieves in the town, the reason being - the great poverty that existed widely in the town.

My last Rabbi was “the Lapitsher” (1901 – 1902)^[2]. He taught us grammar, Bible, Gemarra with Rashi's commentaries, and annotations to the Talmud. The system of discipline was almost like that of a school. We sat on benches and the Rabbi did not beat us. We would sometimes take a walk with the Rabbi to the Poligon.

When I was of Bar-mitzvah age (1903), I stopped attending “cheder”. I attended Talmud lessons at the Talmudic college of “Reuven the Head of the Yeshivah”. At the same time, I had a private teacher Lubovitch who came to our house, taught me Hebrew, and prepared me for entrance to the Russian High School. In 1905, I was ready for the High School examination, but as the quota for Jewish students in the government High School in Bobruisk had already been filled, I was sent to study in the town of Zolotonosha.

Footnotes

1. Avremele Kussoy – he was Reb Avraham Friedland, the Rabbi of B. Katzenelson and D. Shimoni, among the founders of modern cheder, afterwards. return
2. Lapitsher – he was Rabbi Reuven Margolin, the Rabbi of D. Shimoni, one of the founders of the “modern cheder”. return

Reb Avraham Friedland, or as he was called “The Squint Avremel”, taught at the “third level”, and he was my third teacher. The word “level” meant something similar to a unit, similar but not identical. The “first level” began with the “alphabet” and ended with, more or less fluent reading from the prayer book, the psalms, and also the study of a few chapters from the chumash [the five books of the Torah]. The students stay at this “level” and study up to three “semesters” (“a semester” is half a year), depending on their aptitude, and according to the ability of the teachers.

At the “second level”, they already studied chumash with Rashi's commentaries, the Early Prophets, and the weekly Torah portion, and if the teachers became a little motivated by new trends, they taught the students writing and also a little language. The students completed this “level”, mostly at the age of 8 or 9, and passed to the “third level”, where they also spent three to four semesters.

In the “cheder” of Reb Avraham Friedland, they already learnt the Latter Prophets and some Mishnah, and perhaps also the beginning of Gemarra. But the greatest innovations came about in this “cheder”, where the Rabbi was fastidious about his students learning the Hebrew language by using different methods. Actually, I do not recall having any text-book in the period that I studied with Reb Avremel, except for “a table of verbs and nouns”, and a type of “handbook of sample letters” in Yiddish. This was intended as a lexicon to ease the task of letter writing – letters between a groom and a bride, and also a section for commercial letters. In truth, the Rabbi frequently looked into this handbook , but it seems that he made numerous changes, and instead of “my dear bride” or “my dear groom”, he said “my dear father”', “my dear brother”, or “my dear mother”, “my dear sister”, and of course, at the same time, adapting the change to the purpose and content of the letters. He would then read the letter to us in Yiddish and direct us to translate it into the “holy language” [Hebrew]. In this way, he merged what was useful to us, with what was pleasant: The students also learnt Hebrew and were able to use and improve their knowledge to delight their parents and their relatives with flowery letters. These letters were truly intended for a father who was a merchant, or a mother who was a grocer, who spent time away from their homes trading, or to parents, or adult brothers and sisters on special occasions, in honor of a festival, a Barmitzvah, a marriage, or something similar. But Reb Avremel was not satisfied with the letters only. He also suggested various topics to us, on which we were required to write, and also allowed us to write essays of our own choice. He encouraged us to memorize lists of verbs and nouns, and there was no doubt that he was an excellent teacher, because he also instilled in us a liking for grammar. His appearance was formidable. In his sharp, squint eyes, there always shone a hidden ridicule, but when he read chapters of the prophets Isaiah or Jeremiah to us, he became warmer and softened, and instead of the ridicule, from the expression in his eyes, one would sense, a kind of affection and friendship, certainly towards the prophet, but we accepted that

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because it was pleasant for us. He was also creative and cut out letters of the alphabet and drawings on colored paper and stuck them on the cover of a thick writing book, that was given as a prize to an outstanding student.

In the meantime, I was already studying at the “fourth” level with Rabbi Reuven-Yoel Margolin, named “the teacher from Lapitz.

Reuven-Yoel Margolin “The Rabbi from Lapitsh”

Over a period of three to four “semesters”, I saw the Rabbi almost every day, in his grief, suffering great hardship, and I saw his patience, that was no less remarkable. His wife suffered from an incurable, severe type of Rheumatism, and for many years she lay in bed suffering great torment. Her room was adjacent to the room where we studied, and she made the effort to stifle her groaning so that she would not disturb her husband and his students. They had three sons and one daughter, and one of them was usually with their ailing mother. Once in a while, I would also go into her room, when I needed one of the young sons with whom I was friendly. During a break in our learning, I would often see the Rabbi approach his wife's bed and tenderly stroke her swollen hands. Her face would then glow, and she would just weep silently, probably from pain, possibly from supreme happiness. One would only occasionally hear the sound of scolding and reproach from the “cheder”, as the students were noisy at every opportunity. But the Rabbi always managed to calm them down, simply with a shake of his head, and with a vanquished sigh. Incidentally, his outward appearance also seemed to work with hidden magic. He was of medium build, and solid. His face was very pale, and here and there his black beard was streaked with premature grey hair, and his large eyes glowed with a soft, deep light. When I saw him at times, bending over his wife as she writhed in pain, and I saw his shapely face, and her face distorted with pain, and I heard her stifled sobbing and his soft voice saying: “it will still be good, it will still be good”, and my heart broke, as I hurried to escape from their room.

Yet, tragedy can strike more than once, and a “fellow sufferer will be born”. The eldest son of the Rabbi, a talented youth, handsome and refined too, suddenly became mentally ill, and as much as they wanted to hide this occurrence, we all knew about it, and of course, every one of us, both the difficult students and the most disobedient, all prayed for his well-being. Our prayers were accepted. Simcha, (that was his name), recovered, and when the time came to be called up for military service, the Rabbi did not attempt to have him exempted. He apparently felt that military service, mainly physical work, would be good for him. Indeed,

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the Rabbi derived pleasure: in fact, while in the army, his son managed to translate stories by Zangwill^[2] (of course, from Russian), and these stories were published in serial form, in the Hebrew newspaper “Ha'tzfirah”^[3], and Simcha became known as one of the authors. One evening, when the Rabbi came to visit our home, together with Simcha who was dressed in a pressed army uniform, there was no end to my delight and my pride. These feelings were not only because of my love for the Rabbi, and also for Simcha, but that in our house, under our roof, I managed to see the Hebrew writer whose name appeared for several weeks, in black and white, in “Ha'tzfirah”.

Footnotes

1. “Nit'ei Ne'emanim” – “plants of pleasantness”. return
2. Zangwill – Israel Zangwill, 19^th century British author at the forefront of Zionism and a close associate of Theodor Herzl. return
3. Ha'tzfirah – Hebrew language newspaper published in Warsaw, Poland in 1862. return

In 1898, a group of teachers in Bobruisk formed a group, whose aim was to bring a new spirit into the dull world of the old “cheder”.

The incentive that brought these modern teachers together was, first and foremost, a practical one. It was necessary to establish an institution that was suited to the needs of the time, and to ensure its viability. In the quest to fulfill their aim, these teachers chose the right path, and as the reader will see in the following text, they helped significantly to raise the level of Jewish education in the town, and even in the surrounding areas. The actions of this group of teachers are worthy of much admiration, if we consider that they acted on their own initiative and took this task upon themselves in the long struggle with the old “cheder”, whose time had passed.

In those days, in a few Jewish towns, “modern cheders” had already been established. Ysh”y Adler had become famous as the teacher and founder of such a cheder in Hommel, and Bergman established a cheder in Pinsk. Praise for these cheders reached many Jewish towns and finally attracted the attention of the teachers mentioned above.

When presenting their aims – the establishment of a “modern cheder”, these teachers began, first and foremost, to educate themselves. Unlike most of the teachers in Bobruisk in those days, these teachers had a wide knowledge of the Hebrew language and its literature, and some of them, were also familiar with the Russian language. Their work in this field, of enhancing their knowledge, was manifest in their gathering every evening, after a day's work, and practicing speaking Hebrew so that they could prepare themselves to teach the language in a natural way, and they would observe with interest, the teaching arrangements in the schools for girls.

After two years of strenuous self-education, two of the teachers travelled to Pinsk to familiarize themselves with the “modern cheder” there. Two others travelled to Hommel for the same purpose. After they learned the details of the internal and external systems of these two cheders, the teachers felt that they were ready to open their own cheder, and they took action.

They had to abandon the old, established activities and begin new projects that presented a risk, put an end to the failures, and totally destroy them. All the planning for the new system was conducted in secret, and strictly concealed from the rest of the teachers. The organization of the cheder was designed as follows: there would be a course spanning 6 years; the beginners' class would not accept children under the age of 6, and the number of children in this class would reach a maximum of 50 students. The subsequent classes would be filled by the children in the first class, as they progressed. External students would be accepted into the higher classes, only after suitable preparation. The study program outlined that, with the completion of the cheder, the students would know the entire Tanach [the Bible], the beginning of the study of the Talmud, and part of the literature of the Middle-Ages. From the fourth year of study, students would be familiar with the best works of the new literature. An extensive part of the program would be devoted to the history of Israel. A day of learning will last seven hours, from 9am to 4pm, with regular breaks

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between lessons, and one long break. In each of the coming years, another class would be added, so that the cheder would fill all its classes, 6 years from the commencement of the first class.

After renting premises and acquiring furniture for the school, the founders began to enroll students to the new cheder. The residents of Bobruisk were looking forward to something new, with regard to the Jewish education of their children, and knew from hearsay about the excellent status of the modern cheders in Hommel and Pinsk, and willingly entrusted their children to the teachers at the new cheder. In the middle of the winter in 1900, (the designated establishment was opened on Rosh Chodesh Nissan^[2] of that year), the quota of students had already been filled and the parents waited patiently, and with faith, for the new cheder.

The teachers of the old-style cheder, who did not suspect the rise of an internal enemy of such strength, attacked the establishment of the new “cheder”, with all the anger and despair of people who were deprived of their last hope. Firstly, they tried tactical weapons – with slander. However, from the point of view of the authorities, the issue of the improvement of the “cheder” was worthy of praise. Therefore, the teachers of the old system turned for help to the official guardians of religion and tradition – the Rabbis. The local righteous man, the ascetic, known as “The Blind Preacher”^[3] played a significant role in this matter.

When they came to him en masse, they told him in fear, that a few people whose names they omitted, were opening a “class”, and in doing so they are undermining the holiness of the Torah and destroying the foundations of the religion. In this “class”, children are sitting bare-headed and will have no recall of the study of Torah; in short – a heavy cloud is rising over Israel and its Torah, and only the power of “the preacher” can put an end to this. The slandering teachers purposely omitted the names of the founders of the new cheder, for then, even the innocent preacher would realize that there is no basis for their defamation.

Their tactics went well. The innocent old man believed their stories and decided that the time had come to do something for God and Torah. As was his custom, he did not say a word but expressed his attitude to the new enterprise in writing, with these words:” whoever enrolls his children to the “class” to study new methods, will wear new clothes^[4], signed Mordechai Tzvi”. The teachers were happy with the results of their visit.

The wording of the curse with the signature of the preacher appeared on the walls of the great synagogue on the first Shabbat after this, and all the residents of Bobruisk, received the news of this terrible punishment that was awaiting the parents who send their children to the “class”. According to the extensive knowledge of the mothers of Bobruisk, there was no doubt that there was a secret connection between God and “the preacher”. It was no wonder, therefore, that after a few days, the founders of the new school learned that many of the parents who had already enrolled their children in the cheders, are negotiating with other teachers. This was worrying for the modern teachers, particularly as the blow came to them unexpectedly, as a surprise. Only one path remained for them – to go to the “preacher” and inform him of the essence of the matter, from their perspective.

The following day, they came to the “preacher”, all the six founding teachers of the new cheder. When he discovered that the founders were knowledgeable and respected teachers in the town, that matters of faith and the Torah in their cheder would not suffer one iota, the old man deeply regretted his hasty deed and wrote a new rule: if they learn Torah and observance, they will receive blessings and success. Selah.^[5]

On the following Sabbath, on the walls of the same synagogue, the residents of the town learned that the curse had been removed from the “cheder”.

This is how the splinters of heavy weapons that were used by the old-school teachers exploded against the new “cheder”. These teachers now had to find new ways of fighting and their decision was to fight for as long as possible. This first failure angered them even more. The common enemy united all these teachers, even though, in the days of peace they were divided into sections and groups that treated one another with hostility. In defense of the old system, more than a hundred teachers united against the 6 teachers who were in favor of reform.

What was the attitude of the residents of the town to the battle that spread more and more? Those who were progressive and were influenced by new national ideas, sympathized greatly with the new cheder and this resulted in them hastening to send their children there. Most, however, related with apathy to teachers, and stood on the side, now too. Only after the appearance of “the preacher”, did they pay attention to the new cheder that was about to emerge. These recalcitrant teachers decided to turn to the representatives of

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the local orthodox community for help against “the dangerous enemy”.

After a while, an emissary came on behalf of the Rabbi^[6] of the local Chassidim, to the founding teachers of the new “cheder”, demanding that they appear before the Jewish court of law with the rest of the teachers. There was no other way, than submit to their request and appear before the Rabbinical court.

According to the stories of the eye-witnesses who accompanied them, a very interesting sight was revealed in the court. Two rabbis^[7] and a few of the wealthy people in the town, sat at the table with the Rabbinical judges and the local Rabbi, and filled the role of sworn judges. Among them, was also one of the town's elders, the leader of the orthodox community,^[8] the initiators of the trial. The six unfortunate, modern teachers sat on the bench for the accused. The most forceful of the other teachers, who were the accusers, represented their group. All the rest of the teachers in the town gathered in the courtyard, awaiting the outcome of the trial.

The first one, an official representative of the teachers, opened the proceedings at the suggestion of the Rabbi who sat at the head of the court. In his long speech, while foaming at the mouth, this teacher warned that the danger to the Torah and its observers is apparent because of the teachers and the establishment of the “class”. As proof of his concerns, this teacher gave the example of other towns that use modern cheders like “these” that are the root of skepticism and heresy and as a result of which, all the other teachers lost their source of income.

After him, in a fiery speech, one of the wealthy accusers claimed that behind the backs of these modern teachers, these old-time saboteurs, the local intelligentsia are hiding, these heretics, the known atheists. In the most emotional part of his speech, the speaker beat his fist on the table and called out: “even if blood will be spilt in the streets, this cheder will not be established!”

When the accused spoke, they tried to convince the judges that the new cheder will only superficially differ from the old one, that the significance of the Torah will be no less than in the old cheder. With regard to the complaint that 'the income of the rest of the teachers is being stolen', the accused, the modern teachers said: there is no restriction on the traditional teachers to establish similar “cheders”.

The court ruling was postponed as there was an apparent lack of substance to the accusations, due to the lack of clarity of the allegation. The next day, a meeting of the Rabbis and the wealthy representatives was held, and as a result, the accused received an invitation to come to the Rabbi. Here they were advised to sign a commitment, that stated: “we the teachers, who sign here below, the founders of the new cheder, commit not to digress from all that is customary in the existing cheders”. After that, details of these customs would be presented. The content of this commitment contradicted the future activities of the new cheder, but for the sake of peace, the reformers signed the paper, in the hope that after the mood calmed down, and the cheder would open, they would run it as they wished, and their plan succeeded.

The time for the opening of the new “cheder” was approaching, and the building that was erected specifically for this “cheder” was ready and visible in the center of the town. This building was designed to house the two beginner's classes of the “cheder”, and consisted of two spacious classrooms, one large room for eating, and a wide passage to be used as a hall during breaks. Soon the most up-to-date furniture appeared in the new “cheder”; maps, pictures and other visible teaching aids, were hung on the walls. The teachers of the new “cheder” selected a youth from one of their religious colleges for the responsible task of teaching the first class. The day set for the opening of the school was Rosh Chodesh Nissan 1900.

The teachers who were the enemies of the new “cheder” followed everything that was happening in the new “cheder” incessantly, and they secretly prepared a plan of action for the coming days. After they failed in their efforts by “moral” means, they decided to take advantage and in large numbers, they took physical action.

In the first days of the month of Nissan, the founders of the “cheder” organized discussions with some of the young teachers who were supportive of the new ideas of the “cheder”, in order to finally solve some problems concerning its opening. At midnight, the peaceful conversation was stopped by excessive knocking on the doors and windows. There were crowds in the courtyard. The building was surrounded by dozens of teachers armed with sticks, rods, and anything that came to hand.

There was no way of knowing how this conflict would end but one of those who was the target of their aggression managed to break out and report the night attack at the nearby police station. The appearance of the government representative cooled the zeal of the assailants and brought about a total retreat. This occurrence calmed the teachers. The officer registered a warrant in which

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some of the teachers who organized this riot, were mentioned. Peace was made between the people outside and between the teachers with the following conditions: one side is obligated to stop the attacks on the new “cheder”, and the other side will then turn to the police officer to request that he cancel the police investigation, keeping in mind that peace is established in the camp. In this way, the police officer, by his passive participation in this saga of teachers, succeeded in bringing the peace that the town's Rabbis and the wealthy people together, were unable to do.

This event was the last in the battle with the new cheder, and on Rosh Chodesh Nissan (1900), the first “Modern Cheder” was opened in Bobruisk.

There were 32 students in the new “cheder” when it opened. The external appearance of the classroom did not differ in any way from those in the finest schools. The study benches were of Swedish design, a board on the wall that swiveled on hinges, a glass cabinet that housed a rich collection of teaching aids, pictures, and drawings – all these creating a sharp and deep divide between the new “cheder” and the old, and it seemed that they were years apart.

The progressive teachers did not neglect the outward appearance of the students. They organized a special type of uniform and during the time that they were in the cheder, they wore a standard head-covering – red kipot [skull caps].

As an initial teaching strategy, the educator selected a composite system. The choice of this system fulfilled a double task. The teachers did not risk commencing with a new system firstly, because they did not have the experience of teaching the Hebrew language and speaking in Hebrew only, and they also recognized the importance of achieving success in the school's first year of existence. Secondly, for tactical reasons they decided to avoid introducing any notable innovations in the first period.

Learning to read according to the auditory system, started in the first days of the school. This voice system was a completely new idea, different from the accepted methods in the old “cheders”. Its great success was already evident in the first months of study in the “cheder”, and a great surprise to the parents. By the time the festival of Shavuot arrived, the whole class could easily read half the letters of the alphabet, and in addition, they could verbally and fluently use 100 – 200 words by heart and in writing.

It is worth noting one characteristic phenomenon. During the entire first school year, the lessons took place in the presence of parents and others, where the students displayed an understanding of these words in the most literal sense. Every lesson was attended by no less than four or five people who were not affiliated to the school. Fathers came, mothers, uncles, aunts, and everyone who had any interest in the new “cheder” – in the “class”. Many came for the obvious purpose of checking out the groundless rumors that those opposed to the school, spread in the town. In this way, not one day in the first months passed, without someone coming and asking: “do they study here with their heads covered?” Many of the concerns raised regarded the fact that for a long time, the students of the new “cheder” did not know how to say the names of the letters of the alphabet. This “ignorance” of the students confused many parents.

The teacher of the first class of the “cheder” must be commended for tolerating with patience and without any complaint, all the annoying visitors and their constant comments. He opened wide the doors of the “cheder” to everyone who wanted to come to him, and with his effective teaching and even his natural talent, he diffused more and more, the dark cloud of distrust and suspicion that attempted to undermine the “cheder”.

At the same time, the teachers who had officially stopped the open war against the “cheder”, continued with their aggression, quickly taking excessive advantage with a system of small attacks. All these frequent visits by parents and relatives to the “cheder”, were the result of the frequent visits by, no less than, the “old” teachers to the homes of the parents. These teachers who loathed the founders of the new “cheder” gathered all their strength to tarnish the school in the eyes of the residents of the town. Their main aim was directed towards uprooting some of the students from the “cheder” during the school year. Such a triumph could provide them with grounds to speak about the dissatisfaction of the parents with the new “cheder” and its dissolution.

The destructive activities of these teachers created excessive tension at mid-summertime, when the new “cheder” announced that there would be a break from study for a month. They utilized the concept of this “holiday” as complete proof that the new “cheder” was a “class”, and the cache of weapons of the antagonists toward the new “cheder”, was greatly enriched. During all the days of the study break, on a few occasions, the teachers approached all the Chassidim of the new “cheder” and criticized the establishment with extensive negative propaganda.

However, this animosity conducted in secret in a few homes failed and

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the new “cheder” escaped unscathed, and after the month's break, classes resumed with a full complement of students.

By the beginning of the winter, all the students of the new “cheder” were reading fluently, writing, and speaking in Hebrew on specific topics. Besides that, they sang Hebrew songs, recited, - and most important – they became attached to their teacher, and liked their school. The most passionate defenders of the “cheder”, were the students themselves. In the town, people began to speak about the glowing success of the new “cheder”.

By the end of the school year, all the positions in the second class had been filled. It is worth mentioning that some of the parents came in person to announce their wish to transfer their children to the “cheder”, while others invited one of the founders of the “cheder” to their homes for this purpose.

During the last days of the month of Adar 5,761 (1901), examinations took place in the “modern cheder”. The founders decided to take advantage of the situation and utilize these examinations as publicity for the school. They sent out invitations to various communal workers, to representatives of the intelligentsia, and to religious representatives. The examinations lasted about three days. The six teachers were the examiners – the founders of the cheder, but external persons also posed questions to the examinees. During the three days, more than 150 people visited the “cheder”.

There were 32 children who entered the first class, and 29 passed to the second class. All 29 passed before all those present, in a kind of triumphant process – fluent reading from the beginner's book, an understanding of the wording, lively and confident speech and the ability to express themselves in writing, in full sentences, and even short stories; singing many short songs by heart, an understanding of the more common prayers – all this is the knowledge that the students acquired after attending the new “cheder” for one year.

The examinations made an excellent impression, and the reputation of the new “cheder” was assured. It is interesting to mention that by the middle of the second year, after suitable preparation, six external students joined, i.e., from other cheders.

Almost all the students in the first class (29 students) passed to the second class, to study with two of the six founding teachers of the “cheder”. The remaining four teachers stayed in the old cheders, awaiting their turn to take a very active part in the organization of teaching jobs in the departments that were already functioning.

The multi-lingual method of teaching was replaced in the third year of the establishment of the “cheder”, to the system of teaching purely, Hebrew in Hebrew – a system that is standard in this “cheder”, to this day.

The “cheder” only began to operate with its full complement of students, in the sixth year since its establishment i.e., when our sixth class was opened. It continued in this way for three years. After that, changes that were made in its external organization, under pressure from external circumstances, that are discussed here, below.

In order to illustrate the development of the “cheder” in its first 8 years, we present the table below:

Years	Grade 1	Grade 2	Grade 3	Grade 4	Grade 5	Grade 6	Total
1900/1	32	-	-	-	-	-	32
1901/2	35	35	-	-	-	-	70
1902/3	40	36	39	-	-	-	115
1903/4	40	40	37	30	-	-	147
1904/5	42	39	39	37	28	-	185
1905/6	42	39	35	31	30	18	195
1906/7	43	41	34	29	30	21	198
1907/8	55	38	39	30	20	20	202

The glowing success of the new “cheder” crushed the hopes of the teachers of the old generation, to the point of destruction. The women listened less and less to their angry voices, and they became silent. They had to make allowances and accept the fact that the new “cheder” existed and assumed a significant place in the sphere of education in the town. It was not easy for them to reconcile themselves with this sad fact …. The “modern cheder” directly and indirectly affected the issues of all their teachers. On the one hand, it absorbed a large number of students, and on the other, it raised the level of demand for education in the “cheder”, in general. The strength of the new “cheder” was no match for the resources of the old teachers.

The one comfort of the latter was, that after all, there was only one new “cheder” that could not include all the students in the large town, but this cruel reality destroyed their last hopes. In the third year of the existence of the new “cheder”, people in the town began to speak about the need to establish a second “modern cheder”.

The young teachers, full of energy, hurried to utilize this positive mood in their attempt to follow in the footsteps of the founders of the first “cheder”, and began to search for ways and means to establish new “cheders”. At that time, some young “teacher-tutors” came to Bobruisk, or more precisely: “tutor-teachers”

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from other towns. They were attracted to the success of the new “cheder” and wanted to emulate it, and even compete with it. The supportive attitude that was created in the town, for everything new that was introduced in education in the “cheder”, assisted them immensely. After a short time, another two “modern cheders” began to function in Bobruisk. At that time, six “modern cheders” existed in the town, apart from the first one. These new “cheders” aspired to emulate the first “cheder” from the point of view of organization, both externally and internally, as well as its methods, but, in fact, these “cheders”, were only modern externally.

The first “cheder”, as can be seen from the table above, was not affected by the establishment of the new “cheders” but was filled mostly with students from the old “cheders”, whose numbers, in reality declined from day to day. The process of the decline and liquidation of the old-style “cheders”, progressed at such a pace, that within the first eight years of the existence of the “modern cheder”, the number of teachers in Bobruisk was reduced to half. In 1906, there were about 60 teachers in Bobruisk, compared to the 120 – 130 who were there before, in the last years before the opening of the new “cheder”. Now there are about 45 teachers who maintain 10 “cheders” of the old type, in which they teach Talmud.

The impact of the modern “cheder” and the benefits of the cheders and their innovations, was not confined only to Bobruisk. Teachers and tutors began to arrive in Bobruisk from the nearby towns to familiarize themselves with the organization of the new “cheder”. In the style of the “cheder” in Bobruisk, new “cheders” were opened in Mohilev, Rogtchuv, Poritz, Glusk, Ossifovicz, Stchadrin, and others.

When speaking of the impact of this “cheder”, one must also take into account, the fact that besides the opening of the new “cheders”, a spirit of renewal was generally introduced into the “cheder”. Every attempt to introduce something new into the “cheder”, was now met with the attention and full support of the parents.

When presenting the above table of numbers of students in the “cheder”, we stopped at 1907/8. This was the year when the normal life of the “cheder” was interrupted by the opening of two High Schools in Bobruisk in that same year.

In the first year of the function of those High Schools, the numbers of students in the senior classes of the “cheder” declined to such an extent that it was necessary to close the two classes of the upper grade, and to shorten the course of study by two years.

Yitzchak-Izik Sverdlov – a teacher in the modern cheder “Tushiyah” and his students

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At that time, the number of students in the lower classes continued to increase, until the possibility arose in that year, to open classes parallel to the two beginner's classes. In this way, although the establishment of the high schools shortened the course of study, it did not influence the general number of students in the “cheder”. On the contrary, the number of students in the lower classes increased, as can be seen from the table below:

Years	Grade 1 (2)	Grade 2 (2)	Grade 3	Grade 4	Grade 5	Total
1908/9	71	65	34	35	-	205
1909/10	74	73	54	30	-	231
1910/11	80	76	52	41	-	249
1911/12	80	62	54	45	27	278

The table below clarifies the composition of students in the “cheder”.

The year of the cheder's existence	Wealthy	Affluent	Grocers	Clerks	Free professions	Tradesmen	Teacher	Total
1	8	8	6	6	-	2	2	32
2	11	22	12	16	-	6	3	70
3	20	33	27	19	3	9	4	115
4	20	44	35	29	3	10	6	147
6	25	52	50	33	9	19	7	195
7	22	53	53	32	6	22	10	198
8	20	60	49	37	4	24	8	202
9	21	60	45	36	-	37	6	205
10	24	76	47	40	2	34	8	231
11	26	76	60	46	3	32	6	249
12	28	86	65	54	5	32	8	278

Here I find it necessary to point out other very important phenomena in this “cheder”. During the last five years, the number of female students increased. In the first two classes, the number of girls reached 20%. This trend of transitioning to co-educational classes in the “cheder” was a great achievement for the “modern cheder”, because previously, parents did not send their daughters to the “cheder”.

		Izik Sverdlov Teacher in the Modern School “Tushiyah”
The visiting card of a teacher in the modern school “Tushiyah”

To clarify the composition of the students in the “cheder”, we present the table below.

Without entering into a precise analysis of the table, we note that it represents the known ratio of all levels of the population, a fact that proves without doubt, the regard of the local community for the “cheder”.

A high percentage of parents were able to pay the relatively high fees. The fees began with 25 Rubel a year, for the first class, and increased every year by 5 Rubel, and reached 45 Rubel a year in the final class. The average salary of a teacher in the “cheder”, reached 800 Rubel a year.

Footnotes

1. P. Shapiro was the son of Leib-Hirsh Shapiro, one of the founders of the “progressive cheder”. In the period of Soviet rule, he lived in Moscow and was one of the authors of the first Hebrew-Russian dictionary that was published in Moscow in 1963. return
2. Rosh Chodesh Nissan – the first day of the Hebrew month of Nissan. return
3. The blind preacher – see reference on page 286. return
4. New clothes – refers to shrouds. return
5. Selah – concluding word in certain psalms and in liturgy. It means – pause, silence. return
6. Rabbi Shmaryahu-Noach Shneerson. return
7. Rabbi Shmaryahu-Noach mentioned above, and Rabbi Shmuel-Moshe Shapiro. return
8. Chaim-Boaz Rabinowitz or Dov-Ber Ottinger. return
9. Free professions – refers to lawyers, accountants, engineers etc.
   16 According to additional evidence, the name of the sixth-grade teacher was, Tamkin (the editorial staff). return

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