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In my youth, before the First World War, Kolomey had – besides the great shul – another thirty shuln [synagogues] and kloyzn [small, often trade-specific synagogues] and two bote-medroshim [study houses]. In addition to those there were many minyonim [prayer quorums] in shtiblekh [prayer rooms, often Hasidic]. The majority of them were built after the year tav-khof (1660); the great shul was completely rebuilt after the conflagration of tav-kuf-pey-zayn (1827) and remodeled in the year tav-reysh-khof (1860) during the time of Rebi Tsvi zts”l [may his holy memory be for a blessing] of Rimanov. In tav-reysh-khof-hey (1865) most of the shuln and bote-medroshim burned down, along with the old pinkusim [community record books].

In the year tav-reysh-yud-giml (1853) there was a misfortune on yonkiper [Yom Kippur, the day of atonement]: during nile [the closing prayers of the day] some scoundrels spread the rumor that a fire had broken out in order to create a panic among the women in the women's section of the great synagogue, thus enabling the scoundrels to rob them of their jewelry. The women began to run in great disorder, and in the chaos 33 women and 2 children were killed. From then on there was a law against women wearing jewelry on yonkiper. In the old pinkes of the khevre kadishe [burial society] “gemiles khsodim” [loving kindnesses] is printed the lament that was composed for those very victims with the words (as it was recorded in the book zikron lroshonim [in memory of the forefathers] by Judge Khaym Tsvi Taumim z”l [of blessed memory]:

“Sun and moon darken, and the stars of the heavens do not shed light either. O, one must cry out in witness to the tremendous distress. The stern decree of utter destruction came down upon tranquil women, faithful daughters tender and delightful, and also precious and playful children on yonkiper during the time of the nile [when] suddenly a ripping voice caused the doorposts to tremble and a loud noise filled the house of God and the beseechers urgently left. Then You will ask to return their souls to the heavens; therefore Master of Mercy shelter them in the shelter of your wings forever, among the residents of the Garden of Eden in the highest heavens – there will be their proper resting place. Omeyn.”

The representatives and trustees of the great synagogue in my day were:

Yomye Marmorosh, Yoyne Kizler, Itskhok Zaydman, Mendl Fridman, Shimen Zenenzib and others. Among those who prayed there

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I remember Shmuel Herman, Yekheskel Holes, Moyshe Hamer, Avrom Neyder, Aleksander Shor, Shloyme Fridman, Antshl Bishel, Zalman Grinberg, and many others of the residents who did observe the mitsvos [Jewish laws] but who were for the most part not Hasidim and even were considered “modern.”

Off the corridor of the main entrance on the right and the left were another two large rooms that served as a study-house for prayer and study.

The Hasidic kloyzn were: Boyan, a handsome building built in 1893, most of the money for its construction coming from the family Heler; Vizshnits, at first together with the Atinye Hasidim; Atinye, after the split; Zshiditshov; Tshortkov, the main funds for construction given by the Tshortkov Hasidim Ayzik Sharf and my father Meshulem Fried; Kosov (in whose house, according to legend, the Bal Shem-tov zts”l stayed when he lived in Kolomey). Various Hasidim and eminent householders prayed in “Reb Itsikl's shul”, named after the Radzivil saint; regular observant Jews prayed at the Azipol and Sharigrad shuln, along with various Hasidim.

Hundreds of men and women prayed in the large and spacious “yerushalayim” [Jerusalem] shul; the old besmedresh; the new besmedresh; the shul “Kamionke” near the very old cemetery; the shul Siks named after the town of Siks where Rov [“rabbi”] Hilel Likhtenshteyn was rov before he came to Kolomey, where there prayed the very observant and God-fearing, Hasidim of Rov Hilel Likhtenshteyn headed by Iser Kris; they generally prayed before dawn, very early in the morning, even on shabes [sabbath] and holidays, and then studied a page of Talmud; they were almost like ascetics, puritans, and the fanatic Hasidim called them ”di trukene kroym” [those dry Karaites] or Karaites; Klebanye shuln; train shuln; Verbish shuln; Dietkovits shuln; shuln for craftsmen: tailor's shul, shoemaker's shul; the shul in the Zionist club ”beys yisroel” [house of Israel]; the minyonim in the homes of rabonim [“rabbis”]; khab'ad [Khabad Hasidism, based on the tenets khokhma, bine, khesed or knowledge, wisdom, loving kindness], harav”d, the magid [preacher], the Sohole Rebi [Hasidic charismatic rov], the Yase rebi, the Rebi ”Bakhor”, the Rov Antshl (the son-in-law of Rov Hilel) and other small minyonim on other streets.

In the Hasidic kloyzn, as also in the two bote-medroshim and in the Siks shul, young men studied by day and by night in Talmud and in the shulkhn orekh [laws for Jewish life as compiled for Ashkenazi Jews by J. Karo in the 16th century], and many of their fathers – sons of the Torah and observers of the mitsves – also sat after morning prayers and in the evening over a page of Talmud or looked up a commentary in ayn yankev [ethical and inspirational teachings of the Talmud by Rov Yankev ibn Khaviv, 15th century] or another book. On shabes and holidays there were two minyonim in almost all these houses of prayer: in the morning from 7 until 9 and from 9 until 11 or 12. During the week there were several minyonim, from before dawn until 10 o'clock.

In the kloyz of the Boyan Hasidim the family Heler held sway, the sons and the sons-in-law and grandsons of the wealthy and saintly Rov Shloyme Haleyvi Heler, who was a great-grandson of the fifth generation of the genius Rov Yomtov Lipe Heler, author of tosafos yomtov [commentaries by Yomtov]. His oldest son, the wealthy Shimshon, was a fiery Boyan Hasid. His three sons – Avrom Shmuel, Yosl and Lipe – were very dignified, Talmud scholars, prayer leaders and leaders of minyonim, and together they operated the big talis [prayer-shawl] factory that became famous all over the world.

During the First World War, in 1915, Yosl, the second son, was taken back by the Russians as a “hostage”, and perished there. The third son, Lipe, was a Talmud scholar and became the son-in-law of his uncle Sholem Robinzon, who was a son-in-law of Shloyme Heler. The younger brother of Shimshon, Mayer Heler, was also a great Hasid full of religious enthusiasm, an outstanding prayer leader and composer of nigunim [melodies without words]. He became a partner with his father-in-law Sholem Robinzon in the great enterprise “Robinzon and Heler”. His son, my boyhood friend Yekl Heler, lives in Tel Aviv. And Azriel Heler, the son-in-law of Shloyme and his five sons, prayed and studied in that same kloyz. The members of that family – according to the example of their rebi – conducted themselves aristocratically, in the elegance of their clothing and in giving charity. Thanks to that and due to their good breeding, which included great Torah scholars from many generations, they were highly esteemed and they left their mark on that very beautiful kloyz. The other Boyan Hasidim and other pious Jews who were not Hasidim attached themselves to that family, because they strove to have their children educated in that Hasidic-scholarly-wealthy atmosphere. So, for example, joined Leybush Osterzetser and his sons, who was a grandson of the genius Meshulem Halevi Ish Horovits, head of the beys din [Jewish court of law] of Stanislav, a great Talmud scholar, a fearer of heaven, although far from being Hasidic. In the end he left the kloyz because of a dispute and

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went over to Rov Itsikl's shul.

People sat in that Boyan shul studying throughout the whole day, and especially in the evenings. On Friday nights in the winter everyone went to the shul after dinner and spent a pleasant time dancing, singing and hearing words of Torah until late at night. I remember that once when Avrom Shmuel Heler was a half-hour late – and he was in his middle age by then – his father Shimshon shouted at him in front of all the onlookers, “You sit with the women and you chatter about nothing, and that is why you are late.” Another of the members of the Boyan kloyz was Nisn Ayzner. They called him Nisn Cabinet-maker because he was a wonderful artisan of house furniture, who was also called to the Boyan rebi's. Once, on his way back from Boyan, he met Motye Herman who was a joker, who asked him, “So, Nisn, how was the rebi's table? You are such an expert with tables…”

When there arrived a rebi who was a grandson or great-grandson of Rizshin, like, for example, the Gvozdiets rebi, the son-in-law of the Sadiger rebi who was a brother of the Boyan rebi, he would pray shabes at the Boyan kloyz.

During the time of the elections to the Austrian parliament I made a special trip from Krakow to Kolomey and spoke in several shuln in favor of the national candidate, and in the Boyan kloyz I had permission to speak from the bime on shabes, although they were opposed to Zionism. I was not allowed to set foot in the Vizshnits kloyz. One could say that the Boyan Hasidim were the aristocrats among the Kolomey Hasidim.

The Vizshnits kloyz was completely Hasidic. Frequent disputes would erupt between the Vizshnits and Atenye Hasidim even though the two rebis were brothers. Finally they split in tav resh samekh zayn [1907] and the Atenyes built their own beautiful kloyz.

People studied day and night in that kloyz as well. Among the worshipers there I remember: Aron Koen and his sons, Itsye Bretler and his sons and grandsons, Alter Finkl, Moyshe Kopler, Yehuda Ber Zaydman, a son-in-law of Iser Kris who came over from the “Siks” shul, an intellectual Atenye Hasid (his son is

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the writer and teacher I. A. Zaydman in Jerusalem), Mendl Shayerman, Dovid Kasvan, one of the leading Atenye Hasidim, Mendl Dikman, a son-in-law of Hirsh Ramler, Yoysef Shpits and Avrom Mayer Berish's, Liber Shaler, Zelik Sharf, Itsik Khasid, the “flogger” of the Atenye Hasidim, Efraym Mayer Menashe's, Moyshe Drimer and his son-in-law Yekhiel Rozenberg, Moyshe Mendl Zaydman, Meshulem Eyferman, his son Leybele and his son-in-law Itsye Grinberg, Hersh Kats and his sons, Vovik Rozenkrants, Moyshe Pidvisoker, Moyshe Sharf and his son Lipe, a loyal Zionist and collector for “keren kayemet” [Jewish National Fund for purchasing land in Palestine] who now lives in Jerusalem, and others.

The site for building the Zshiditshov kloyz was the gift of Elye Heger, who was also called Elye Honeymaker. His house was closely connected to the kloyz. He was also the main gabay [warden] and very strong-minded. I recall that one shabes there arrived a grandson of the Zshiditshov rebi, the son of the sainted Mendele of blessed memory, and Elye would not allow him to pray in the kloyz because he – Elye – only recognized one Zshiditshov rebi, the one who was then the head of the beys din in Zshiditshov and he was necessarily the younger one, who came every year to Kolomey, and therefore the son of the sainted Mendl Getsvongen had to go to pray in Rebi Itsikl's shul. And the saint of Doline, who stemmed from the Zshiditshov line, used to come to our town for shabes and pray at the Zshiditshov kloyz. Also a second grandson, Moyshe Aykhenshteyn, who lived in Kolomey, used to pray in Rebi Itsikl's shul because Elye Honeymaker did not recognize him either.

Pious, respectable Jews who were not Zshiditshov Hasidim also prayed in that kloyz, such as: Shmuel Horovits and his sons and sons-in-law, Fishl Etinger (his father Gershon and his brother Hirshe Volf were Zshiditshov Hasidim), Zelig Khayes and his sons Zeyde and Leybush, Fishl Heger, Itsik Herman and his son-in-law Yekl Helitsher, and others.

And still many other Zshiditshov Hasidim prayed in other shuln, in particular the shul named for Rebi Itsikl of Radzivil. Outstanding prayer leaders in the Zshiditshov kloyz were Mayer Frantsoyz ^[1] and Hirsh Volf Etinger.

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The Tshortkov kloyz was small and the number of attendees was not large. A lot of Tshortkov and Sadiger Hasidim also prayed at other shuln. The kloyz was completely destroyed by canon during World War I.

During my childhood I prayed and studied in that kloyz and my father often led from the cantor's stand on shabes, holidays and high holidays, but even before my barmitsve he had gone from the Tshortkov kloyz over to Rebi Itsikl's shul.

Of the people at the Tshortkov kloyz I remember: Ayzik Sharf, Meshulem Fried, Efraym Kopl's, Berl Dinstfeld, Hirsh Rekhter, Berl Sekhestover and his son Hershl, Leyb Esnfeld, Fayvish Mentshl, Motl Sher, the orator Rov Itskhak Veber, his brother Moyshe Veber, Henekh Shekhter, Mordkhe Nusboym, Binyumin Shekhter, Yosye Kreyttser, Gavriel Grinberg, Shloyme Grosbakh, Moyshe Sadigurski, Berl Bortn, Aron Peysakh (a son-in-law of Mayer Frantsoyz.)

I did not go to the Kosov kloyz and so I do not know who did go there. I only remember that Dovid (Dudye) Kramer, a wonderful prayer leader, was the cantor.

In that shul named for Rebi Itsikl the Radzivil Saint, there were many very respectable Jews, pious Talmud scholars, various Hasidim and proprietors. It was reckoned among the most distinguished shuln in our community. The [Jewish] judge Rov Yehoshe Heshl Zilber of blessed memory who prayed there, used to study a lesson from Talmud for children, myself included, on the winter nights. And Mordkhe Itsye – a Talmud expert and very pious, a Hasid after the brilliant and saintly Rov Avrom Dovid Butshatsher may his holy memory be for a blessing – used to teach an open commentary session every evening and on shabes before the late-afternoon prayers.

As in all the kloyzn, here too all the pious Jews sat at the third feast of shabes and sang long after the first stars had been sighted [indicating the end of the Sabbath]. Itsikl Shayke's (Fridfertig) sat at the head of the table and sang the shabes songs. Among the attendees were: Yom Tov Lipa (Lipman), Haleyvi Herman, the head of the shul, his son Motye Herman, who would inherit being head of the shul, vice-president of the community council; Shloyme Bikl-Khalfn, an anti-Hasid, a Talmud scholar, a banker; Zerakh Erlikh, his son Yeshaye, Shloyme Heler, a Boyan Hasid, Aron Shoykhet, Sender Yoel, an in-law of the Zshiditshov rebi; Itskhak Leyb Goldshteyn, Yosl Meltzer, a Tshortkov Hasid, Meshulem Simkhe Linder (Vizshnits Hasid), Hirsh

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Ramler, a very rich man, with his sons-in-law: Moyshe Landoy (a Sadiger Hasid and a Talmud scholar), Efroym Klarman, from Krakow, a Talmud scholar and an enlightener, very pious, a fervent Zionist; the judge Rov Yehoshe Heshl Zilber, Tshortkov Hasid, Menashe Roykhverger and his son, my friend Dr. Zerakh, attorney, Talmud scholar and pious Jew, Moyshe Aykhenshteyn, a grandson of the Saint of Zshiditshov; Moyshe Brandes, the son of a rov, Talmud scholar, enlightener, Stretin Hasid; Sholem Veber and his sons Yekhezkl (Khaskl) and Mordkhe and his son-in-lawYudl Nagelberg, Leybush Osterzetser, Talmud scholar, a grandson of the genius Rov Meshulem Horovits head of the beys din of the community of Stanislav and his sons Ruveyn, Shloyme and Nosn; Mordkhe Bikl (son of Shloyme Bikl) and his father-in-law Motl Kahana with the nickname “Ponia”, a Russian Jew, his father-in-law Simkhe Tsimels, from Brod, a Talmud scholar, and expert in Torah, Prophets and Writings, and his son-in-law Hershl Tsimels, also from Brod, Talmud scholar and enlightener; Yosl Gotlib, Atenye Hasid and his son Gershon, Yosele Brotshiner-Vahl, a distinguished scholar (who also arranged for guests to have Friday night dinner in the homes of local householders). Mordkhe Itsye's, scholar of spreader of Torah, Dovid Leyb Hofman, a scholar, a friend and the right-hand man to the preacher Itskhak Veber, Sholem Robinzon, Shmuel Fried, Zalman Shperber, Sh. Grayf and his sons Aron and Zerekh, a son of Torah and a brilliant prayer leader, Berl Vinkler, Hershl Bernshteyn from Tarnov, Gedalye Fayr a son-in-law of Aron Shoykhet, Shloyme Shrayer, Fayvish Hanoman with the nickname “Holopietnik”, a passionate Zshiditshov Hasid, a fiery prayer leader ^[2]; Yoel Mayer Prays, the Toah reader at the shul for decades; his son Dovid Shloyme, Efraym Hibner, Gershen Tahau and his son Itsye and others.

Motye Herman led the shul with a strong hand. I remember that one simkhes toyre [rejoicing in the Torah] at night, quite a few Jews who on holidays studied with Judge Yehoshua Hershl Zilber arrived along with the Judge, with torches and song as was the custom, late for the evening service and late for the hakofes [circuits, in which the Torah scrolls are carried around the shul]. Motye Herman was leading the service. The Jews with the Judge came in during the evening shimenesre [Eighteen Benedictions, recited standing] and were angry that they had not delayed the prayers on account of the Judge and of them. And one of them – Dovid Leyb Hofman – began to loudly sing the borekhu [introductory prayer], and broke into the shimenesre. After finishing the prayer, Motye got up on a lectern and shouted like a commandant, “Have respect!”

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Another episode from my youth is etched in my memory: On simkhes toyre the title of “bridegroom of the Torah” belonged to Rebi Moyshe Aykhenshteyn, a grandson of Zshiditshov rebis; and the honor of the first reading in Genesis belonged to Motye Herman. One time Rebi Moyshe was ill and his title “bridegroom of the Torah” was sold for 200 gulden to the wealthy Hirsh Ramler, who was a pious and genial Jew but really quite simple, not a student of Torah and not even a reader of holy books. He was busy day and night with his businesses. I was very chagrined at this insult to the honor of the Torah and I told the shul wardens a joke that was repeated about the genius Rov Shemen Soyfer head of the beys din of Krakow. When a similar thing had happened in his community in his time, he had remarked to his wardens, “We see today a match made in the style of the Polish Hasidim.” When asked the meaning of his remark, he translated it “The groom has not met the bride before the wedding.”

I remember another event that well illustrates the morals of those who prayed at that shul. A Jew by the name of Berl Vinkler, who loaned money for interest, made a complaint in court against the debtor Zalman Shperber, who also prayed there, because he had not repaid his loan within the terms set. One weekday he came into the shlul full of righteousness and occupied the debtor Zalman Shperber's special assigned chair. The wardens and the congregants were enraged at this ignominious act, and they made a decision: accordingly, on shabes they interrupted the service in the middle when Berl Vinkler showed up, saying that they would not pray with such a person. Since Berl Vinkler would not leave the shul, they all – led by Motye Herman – went to the besmedresh next door and continued their service there.

Most of the people who prayed at the Azipol kloyz were those who lived in that area (behind the town hall). I remember some of them. Moyshe Aynhorn, a distinguished householder and father of 14 sons and daughters, all by one mother; Yehuda Leyb Grin, a son-in-law of Yehuda Hirsh Glinert, a Talmud expert and Enlightener, an extreme anti-Hasid; Moyshe Bokhnier, a Zshiditshov Hasid, an exquisite prayer leader, Khaym Dovidl's Halbershtam, a Talmud expert and a very pious Jew, my father-in-law Moyshe Zinger may he rest in peace, Berish Hilzenrat, Moyshe Tsukerman, a scholar and a passionate prayer leader, a faithful follower and the right hand of the preacher Rov Itskhak Veber,

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Alter Toybish, a son-in-law of Shaul Vaysman, a scholar and enthusiastic Zionist; Shmuel Laden, Mendl Shayerman.

The Sharigrad kloyz comprised mixed Jews of every type. It was well known that every simkhes toyre disputes broke out there about the honors for leading certain prayers, for carrying the Torah in the circuits and for the Torah blessings, and the ardor for honors often led even to fisticuffs.

Of those who went there I remember Khaym (Finies) Frenkl, a Zshiditshov Hasid and fine prayer leader; Motye Bretler, the eldest son of the millionaire Yankev Bretler; Motye Peye Malke's, Hasid, Torah expert and prayer leader, Yisroel Eyferman, the father-in-law of Dr. Fishl Rotenshtraykh, the former member of the Sokhnut management in Jerusalem; Khaym Zizkind, Hirsh Kris, his son-in-law Leyb Post, Zisye Hofman and his son Dovid, Yekl Sokal, a scholar and Enlightener, Dovid Glinert, Yisroel Kantor and others.

In the ”Yerushalyim” [Jerusalem] shul there worshiped various sorts of Hasidim and regular, observant, prominent householders and many who lived in that area. On weekdays six or eight minyonim prayed there, from before dawn until noon. And flocks of orphans came to say kadish [a praise to God that is recited by mourners] at the combined afternoon-evening service. On shabes afternoons they studied a page of Talmud or commentary, and often preachers and orators spoke, visitors from other places; and the Zionists held their meetings there, where there were often religious speakers who clarified the Zionist and nationalist thinking and who spiced their speeches with many kinds of examples, commentaries from holy sources, and sayings of the sages. Of those who prayed there I remember: Yankl Beydaf, the head of the Jewish community and the town council, a passionate Vizshnits Hasid who also used to travel to Zshiditshov, exceptionally wealthy, the father-in-law of Rov Yosl Lau; the Vizshnits Rebi and the Zshiditshov Rebi, who used to come to Kolomey for shabes stayed with him.

He was a clever Jew, nimble and ebullient, a social person. But the same Hasid who on Friday night danced on the table before the rebi, as was the Vizshnits custom, was one of the most assimilated, one who danced to the humiliating tune of the Polish princes, who spoke in the name of the Hasidim against the nationalist Jews and Zionists and for those assimilated to Polish culture, in particular during the time of the elections to the Austrian parliament, to the parliament of Galicia and the council. (Aron Koen, the head of the Jewish community, a Vizshnits Hasid, wealthy,

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well-dressed, behaved in just the same way, although neither of them could speak a word of Polish…) His two sons, Itsye Beydaf and Leybush (a son-in-law of Shmuel Horovits); Yankl Bretler, a multi-millionaire, religious but not a Hasid, his two sons Yoyne and Mendl; his three sons-in-law Moyshe Zaydman, Moshe Breyer and Nosn Baron; Motl Breyer, Meylekh Tsvibl, Shimshen Koynits, Motl Kramer, Shaul Vaysman and his son-in-law Motl Frish, Aba Hamer, A. Slopkovitser, a son-in-law of Moyshe Zaydman, a Talmud expert and Enlightener and very pious, who dressed in modern clothes, a Zionist; A. Kristiampolier, a son-in-law of Moyshe Breyer, from Brod, a Talmud expert and an Enlightener, from a good family, very pious, dressed in modern clothes; Moyshe Rohatin, a son of the head of the beys din of Zlotshev and a son-in-law of Moyshe Breyer, a Torah scholar and champion of Enlightenment, an active Zionist and a good speaker; Yisroel Khaym Henish, a teacher of Torah, Prophets and Writings [the “old testament”] and Hebrew grammar on a high level (an uncle of the writer and journalist Mayer Henish in Tel Aviv); Moyshe Feldman and his sons Khaym and Leybush; Khaym Laks, Gedalye Biter and his sons, Itsye Hekht and his son Shmuel, Shloyme Ashkenazi, Alter Rat, Volf Faktor, Yehuda Hersh Gliner and his sons, Avrom Itsye Soykher, Itsye Heger, Avrom Elye Ramler, and others.

Rov Yankev Taumim and Rov Gedalye Shmelkish used to pray there during the week on the days when Torah is read and on the new moon.

There were a lot of people at the old besmedresh, mostly regular observant Jews and no Hasidim, and on shabes afternoons the orator Itskhak Veber of blessed memory used to preach to a large audience.

That was where the judge Rov Moyshe Yehoshue of blessed memory, the so-called “head of the yeshiva” prayed, and also his sons Alter and Khaym. Of the others I remember: Yudl Krebs, the chief warden, the wealthy Shaol Kneper, his son Alter Kneper, an in-law of Rov Gedalye Shmelkish of blessed memory, his son-in-law L. Mandel, a Talmud expert and very pious, Dovid Vayzelberg, Kopl Bekher and his sons, Yonatan Vielitshker and his son, Shloyme Vaysbakh, Moyshe Ivanier and his son Zindl and others.

On shabes parshas yitro of tav-reysh-samekh”khes [the Sabbath on which the Torah portion called Jethro is read (sometime in February) in 1908] a terrible fire broke out in the old besmedresh and 11 Torah scrolls were burned. The whole town was greatly saddened and the rabonim called for a community fast and buried the remains in the Jewish cemetery.

Many proprietors prayed at the new besmedresh. It is possible I am mistaken about the place where the preacher Itskhak Veber sermonized, and that he preached at the new besmedresh, which was near the building of the old one.

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In both of them, many people studied Talmud, commentaries, ayn yankev and even Torah with RaShI's commentary [acronym for Rov Shloyme Itskhaki, 11th century].

The main people at the Siks shul were: Iser Kris, vice president of the Jewish community, very pious, wealthy, a follower of Rov Hilel Likhtenshteyn and later also of Rov Gedalye Shmelkish (I recall that in the memorial speech at his funeral, Rov Gedalye Shmelkish said of the deceased, with a bitter cry, that he was a “holy Jew”) ; his son Leybush Kris, his son-in-law I. Zshenirer, his son-in-law Yehude Ber Zaydman, of the main Atenye Hasidim that later went over to the Atenye kloyz; Shmuel Shupt, A. Shoym, Mikhal Hamer, the children of Rov Hilel Likhtenshteyn, Borekh Bendit, Zalman and his sons. For many years after Rov Hilel passed on his spirit still hovered over that besmedresh, though the Hasidim and especially the Vizshnits Hasidim disparaged it.

Various people prayed at the “Talmud-Torah” shul, members of the “Talmud-Torah” (see further on) and those who lived in that neighborhood, and headed by Tomed Shoykhet, a son of Aron Shoykhet. He was a kind of recluse and holy man who rarely spoke, and on shabes he would speak only Hebrew. (It is said that he would say to his wife [in Hebrew] “Tnay li khalav yoyshev” which means “milk that has sat” [in a glass together with sour cream]; and every Friday he would go from shop to shop and collect donations for little-known poor people.

His father Aron Shoykhet was the founder and agent of the “Talmud-Torah”, a large religious school for poor students, and devoted himself to it well into his advanced years.

The Kamionk shul, on Kamionk Street near the very old cemetery, held mostly people who lived in that vicinity, among them some Hasidim. I only remember a few of them: Alter Taykher and his son Shimen Taykher, owner of a famous Hebrew press, Hirsh Rat, the eminent teacher (see further on), Moyshe Tindl, Yekl Tindl, Hirsh Leyb Rat, his sons Shimen and Moyshe, Yoyne Zager, owner of a talis factory, Yoyne Hibner. Housed in that building was the best school of that time, with the teacher Hirsh Rat.

In the Zionists' shul, ”beys yisroel”, were the leaders of that movement and many of its members. I can recall a few of them: Yehoshue Fadenhekht, the president of the shul and of the club ”beys yisroel”, the headmaster, a Talmud scholar, Enlightener, pious, a passionate Zionist; Leybl Toybish, the son of the head of the beys din of Atenye, a Talmud scholar, Enlightener

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[photographs]

The wooden shul in Petshinizshin		The wooden shul in Yablonov
	The Talmud Torah

[Page 142]

a popular speaker and a wonderful interpreter of Zionist thought, Leybush Yeger, Talmud expert, Enlightener, I. Mayer, the grandfather of a professor of archeology at Jerusalem University; A. Slopkovitser, Motl Berger (a freethinker and yet he never missed coming to pray on shabes and holidays), Mayer Henish, Avigdor Khaym Shternberg, well-known prayer leader, Moyshe Laks, a son of Khaym Laks, a Talmud expert and good speaker, editor of a Zionist weekly newspaper in Yiddish in which I published articles during the time of the elections to parliament.

The other shuln and minyonim in the streets that were farther from the center of town and in the suburbs were filled with the people who lived in those areas, mostly craftsmen and small merchants and a few Hasidim and Talmud scholars. The locals of the suburb of Verbish prayed at the minyon at Rov Antshl's (a son-in-law of Rov Hilel Likhtenshteyn); and among them was my wife's grandfather Hirsh Vagenberg, a Vizshnits Hasid, a Torah scholar and giver of charity, his wife Bobole was active in the community with aid and charity.

During the time of my youth the community numbered three thousand families, about twenty thousand souls. Upwards of eighty percent of the Kolomey Jews were religious, observers of all the mitsvos [the Ten Commandments plus 613 other laws and rules of Jewish life], half of these Hasidim of various rebeyim. Among them were Talmud scholars, completely reverent Jews, and also Enlighteners and many pious householders. Of those about ten percent were “modern”, having given up shtraymlekh [wide-brimmed fur hats] to wear top hats on shabes and holidays, and sending their children to modern, non-religious schools and marrying their daughters to doctors who were freethinkers, far from Jewish tradition, although they themselves were still religious. And less than ten percent, some trade-intellectuals, attorneys, doctors, state agents, teachers and a few rich people, desecrated the shabes and only came to shul on the Jewish new year and yonkiper.

And yet they stood at the top of the community and they represented the Jewish interest in the town hall, as was usual in Galicia at the time, and the majority of the religious Jews had to be satisfied with providing for their own needs in matters of ritual slaughter, mikve [ritual baths] and so on.

All the businesses were in Jewish hands, and on shabosim un yontoyvim not one business was open except for the three apothecaries, two of which were Christian-owned. Even among the non-religious merchants no one would dare to open on shabes, and it was not worthwhile because there would not be any customers because even the non-Jews knew that everything was closed on shabes. When Maks Feldman, the youngest son of Moyshe Feldman, opened his drugstore on shabes with the explanation that it was under the regulations of an apothecary, the town went off its wheels.

The character of the community was pious. I do not know how Kolomey seemed in the nineteen-twenties and -thirties because I lived in Vienna in those years, and the ties that bound me to my hometown were broken.

Footnotes

1. See Shloyme Bikl's chapters about Mayer Frantsoyz in A shtot fun yidn [A town of Jews], New York, 1943 Return
2. See about him in Shloyme Bikl's A shtot mit yidn [A town of Jews], New York 1943 Return

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